Laayla Muhammad
AP English 3rd Block
Letter 1
So basically, Walton is this guy trying to reach the North Pole. He's writing a letter to his sis Margaret and tellin' her about how bad he had wanted to do this all his life. He was rich and led an easy life but he just wanted fame all along. He talks about how he's gonna discover a shortcut as in a northern passage to the pacific and how he's gonna find out all about the magnetism of the earth and of course, be the 1st one to be walkin' all over north pole. See when his dad was dying, he ordered his bro to never let Walton go seafaring. So Walton is whinin' about that stuff to his sis and is tryin' to justify why he's goin' out on this "important journey" and how he rather walk round in his fur coat than sit still in the plane for hours. He has great confidence in what he's trying to do. Too much pride can hurt you though... Anyways, he has this ship where he's the captain and they're gonna sail up to the north pole and chill....literally.
Letter 2
Okay so Walton is really whining now. He tells his sis how no matter what happens, he's never gonna be "satisfied" because he has no friends to share anything with. If he succeeds, he can't have someone being superduper happy for him and if he fails, no one will be sad for him. He longs to have a friend and says how he's a "romantic" because he "desires" a man to feel sorry with him. I wonder if he's gay. Then he talks about how as a kid, all he did was read Uncle Thomas's books of voyages and that he can't help but be this way and that he feels stupider than 15 year olds. He keeps on ranting on about his lieutenant and how great of a man he is (envying a man...again?) because of his "courageous and glorious" ways and how he has made this one woman super jolly. The problem was that as he was about to get married to this one girl, she confessed how she loved another man, but he was poor. Then somewhere in there the father's consent to marriage becomes a big deal, like some typical low class bollywood movie. Knowing this, this lietenant gives parts of his wealth + this farm to this poor man and the father is still complaining about the wedding. Later on though, the couple does get married and at the end, the lieutenant is this big shot. In any case, I also think something is going between him and his sis because of the way he says "I love you very TENDERLY." He asks her to remember him with "affection". Maybe it's an incestuous gay fest. Who knows? What we should notice is that as he's ending this letter, he says "but I shall kill no Albatross; therefore do not be alarmed for my safety.." In the poem we analyzed in class "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," the mariner shot the albatross and committed the greatest sin of all for not appreciating God's creation and later was punished by being cursed. This is what Walton refers to in the text. Good analysis Laa! :)
Letter 3
Walton is in a bit of hurry and stops to write a few things to his sis again. He tells her how the crew is still doin' good and it has gotten to be a little warmer ("height of the summer") - the point of this letter is to show how convinced he is of his safety and is determined to continue with this journey and succeed.
Letter 4
Whoa, so something bad does happen. About time. On July 31st, (haha Billa's birthday) Walton's ship got surrounded by ice. As the fog cleared up, they saw this weird HUGE guy with a sledge led by dogs. Then he vanished and in a little while, the ice broke up and the path cleared up. They rested and such and then in the morning, they find another diff. guy with a similiar sledge. The dude's all weak and starving like a bum, and they get him on the boat. But see, they're surprised 'cause in his condition, he shouldn't give a care where they're going but he kept askin' -- and when they were like "it's headin' north," he finally got in. The whole crew was all curious to find out what's this guy been though and they kept questioning him except Walton 'cause he knew better and didn't wanna lose his pride. But in the book it says how he was being "considerate" of the fact that the guy has already been through so much. Hmm hmm. Sure. It's funny 'cause Walton is dying with curiosity about this dude so he helps him recover and get better and within 2 days after grubbin' on soup, he does get better. They both become buddies and all of a sudden, Walton is all "yay" 'cause he found a homie. They open up like two very sentimental men (homo?) and the man is all "alarmed" to hear what Walton is trying to do and why. So the dude finally agrees to tell Walton his side of the story and Walton's all excited like a little girl with a lollipop.
Chapter 1:
Okay so the speaker is Victor Frankenstein now and he's talking about his life from the very start. He continues to relate the story back to his childhood and his parents. Basically, his father's friend Beaufort was very unstable financially and later became sick and passed away, leaving his daughter Caroline by herself with no where to go. Victor's father, Alphonso, married the girl even when she was young as ever. The age difference WAS pointed out, but it does not hold a dramatic change to affect the story. They were "truly in love" I guess and he had actually taken her "under his wings" first before they married. But in any case, then they had Victor. After a while, as they were traveling and stuff, they saw these poor families. Caroline was touched by this everytime because it reminded her of the rough times she's been through. In one of the famlies, they noticed that while all the kids were dark haired like Italians are, this one little girl was blonde and had a lighter skin color. She thought of her as prettier and wanted to know about her and found out that she was this orphan to a Milanese nobleman and a german woman. The family that was takin' care of her at the moment was very poor so Caroline adopted her into the family and wow, she was to marry Victor in the future. I was right. I kept mentioning how I'm confused and that I suspect incestous actions but I guess in the book, since they weren't actually related by blood, it's aight? Hmm, important thing to notice. Anyways, Victor was real happy and actually refers to Elizabeth as his posession rather than a sister. It's weird because he finds posession to be a higher status than Elizabeth being his sister. Hmm.
Chapter 2
He starts off talkin' about how much his sister means to him and how even as kids, they always got along. He talked about growing up with this buddy Henry and how happy his surroundings were. He talks about how she was interested in subjects like nature, so I'm assuming she was a tree hugger? He becomes interested in natural philosophy when he comes across a random book and thus, he starts studying all these authors that relate to that subject. Some of these artists were Agrippa, Paracelus, and Albertus Magnus. But see, Victor liked nature too, but differently. He liked it when things got electricuted, like that one tree during a thunderstorm. Later he discovers information about electricity and he questions what he has learned about alchemy and other subjects. He starts to doubt about all he has learned and begins to wonder if all this knowledge in his head is unrevelent and outdated. Victor is a lot like me at this stage when I begin to doubt what I'm learning in MPS and assume that none of this crap is going to help me in actual life.
Chapter 3:
This is a real sad chapter as Victor starts talking about how sick his mother became at one point. He was all ready to go off to college so his sister Maggie ended up taking care of the mother. As his mother was laying in her death bed, she started doing what every dying mother does, which is making last demands and disaplaying them as wishes and such. She expressed how she wanted Maggie and Victor to marry one another and with that, Victor leaves to college finally. He ends up feeling really disappointed when one of the professions he meet tells him that he's been wasting his time reading up on alchemy and such, when these subjects aren't even updated. But of course, with his "pride" ... VIctor emphasizes how he already had doubts and needed those doubts to be confirmed. He starts paying attention to what he should have been, science. He attends a Chemistry lecture and begins to gain great interest.
Chapter 4:
So Victor basically becomes a nerd and he starts to isolate himself where it's just him and education. One can only imagine the thirst in him for nature. It's like that thirst that nothing can quench except sprite? or mountain dew? or was it Sierra Mist? AH! It was. Anyways, he ends up being what this generation... or any generation would call a loser. He has no friends and he doesn't talk to his family back in Geneva. He basically becomes the first official emo kid in Europe. What should be noticed is the fact that his modest desire to obtain knowledge is stronger than ever at this phase. The subject he concentrates the most on is anatomy, the make up of the human body. He emphaizes learning about how a body decays once after death and he basically tires himself out from studying all day and night. His priorities shift from family to education as #1. He becomes that "teacher's pet" and impresses all his professors and even yet he still want to obtain great knowledge. He ends up fnding the secret of life, you know, that thing, I'm still searching for. And basically, this is the point where he begins to create his OWN life as an experiment. He's alone in his little home and he hides himself from the public for privacy. He becomes paranoid and goes off in greath lengths with his plans. He is pretty optimistic abot what he is about to do and thinks himself of this great being. He's basically playing the role of God. And we all know what happens when we imitate God... don't we? There should be like omnious music playing in the background, honestly.
Chapter 5:
So Victor finally finishes his creation and it has taken him some time to achieve that. The only problem is, what he has composed is not something attractive or appealing, in fact, it's hideous. It's in fact, SO scary looking that he refuses to look at it and rushes to another room for safety. He lays there and soon enough falls asleep. The next morning he wakes up and finds this hideous lookin' thing staring right at him. This scene frightened him to a large extent and forced him to leave to the yard in fear. He pondered all night and began to develop almost regretting thoughts. He got SO scared that he started walking away, randomly, saying he'll never go back to that place. He runs into his friend Henry who is all jolly to see Victor finally. Victor was actually relieved to finally see a recognized soul around him, he felt safer. Henry notices how pale and sick Victor is and they both go back to the Victor's home. Victor's panicking because he thinks the monster is going to be just standin' there waitin' for him like how wives wait on their husbands all the time. -sigh. Anyways, they go back and they don't find the monster, but Victor falls into sickness. Luckily for him, Henry is there to take care of him. This is mainly because he doesn't want to stress Victor's family back at home by bringing him back to them when he's sick. Instead, he helps Victor recover and writes to Elizabeth, reporting him of Victor' s progress. Later, Henry informs victor of a letter Elizabeth, his cousin, has wrote for him.
Chapter 6:
Victor begins to read Elizabeth's letter that basically informs him about everything that has been happening back at home. She explains how they have been worried sick about him and that they wish to hear from him. She tells him about individual family members, basically keepin' him up to date with everything. She tells him how Justine is this girl living with their family now because her mother has passed away. I guess she used to live with them before, but her mother stopped her, but now since she has passed away, she has come back. She also tells him about all these gossips around the town. Victor writes her back, assuring her that he's going to write back to her all the time now and that he does care. Victor, at this stage, can't stop thinking about the monster. He is trying very hard to avoid any sort of confrontation about it. He introduces Henry to his studies and his professors. Every time he does this, he goes through this own personal moment where he's dreading every moment of it because the monster comes to his thoughts. Later on, Victor goes back to Geneva and he waits on a letter from his father with the date of the him leaving. Both friends roam through the city and basically try to hold positive aspects on life and appreciate the beauty of nature.
Chapter 7:
As Victor and his friend Henry are coming back from the university, they find a letter stating how his brother William was murdered. He is startled and shocked by this and decides to return back to see what is going on. The problem occurs when he realizes that the gates has been shut down because of the time it took him to get back. Therefore, he stupidly decides to just randomly walk through the woods, something I wouldn't EVER do because I'm ..uh sane? And so he goes to the spot where his bro's dead body was found and he notices something even more shocking. He sees the monster, the one he created and fled from. Random thoughts go through his mind and he assumes the worst, that it was his monster that killed his brother. He is too afraid to come out and say this, even when he realizes that Justine is the one who is being blamed for William's death. Supposedly, a picture of Caroline was found in her pockets, and William was the one who last had it. Even with this as evidence, Victor has a mind of his own to conclude to his assumptions. He just doesn't want people to think he's some lunatic, because it's obvious at first, no one will believe him.
Chapter 8:
The chapter starts off by Justine actually admitting to the murder. She had entered the court with guilt and all the proof against her innocent was presented. Even though Justine goes through such confession, she modestly informs Victor and Elizabeth that it wasn't her who killed William. Even though they do believe her word and realize she is innocent, the court finds her guilty of murder and she is given the death penalty. This enraged Victor, who is positive that his monster is responsible for his brother's death. He finds the monster responsible for not one, but of two deaths, William and Justine. They both mourn and grieve over the unfortunate deaths that occurred. Victor states, "Tuhs, spoke my prophetic soul, as, torn by remorse, horror, and despair, I behalf those I loved spend vain sorrow upon the grabs of William and Justine, the first hapless victims to my unhallowed arts."
Chapter 9:
There is a sudden change in Victor, and he experiences depressive thoughts due to proceeding events. He reaches a phase where he says his heart's been overflowed with kindness, and that he did have benevolent intentions and a thirst to make himself useful to other people. What he feels now, is just guilt, regret, for what he has caused to happen. His mind fills with remorse and he states that solitude is his only consolation-- deep, dark, deathlike solitude. Remorse has extinguished every hope that he had in his heart for the future. Victor's thoughts lead him to become suicidal and he contemplates about death and his existence's benefits to humanity. Yet, he feels that he has a duty to be there for Elizabeth and his father. Alphonse basically takes his children on a trip to the family home in Belrive. Victor decides to just roam on his own and he disappears toward the valley of Chamounix. The scenery is beautiful and he begins to become cheerful even though his respite from grief is not for long. An important thing to notice is the fact that nature itself, is a main factor in always changing Victor's mood around. He always becomes more sensitive and joyful when he surrounds himself with nature and its beauty. Similarly, when him and Henry were spending some time together, they began to feel happiness and less stress as they walked together and observed nature's beautiful views.
Chapter 10:
In this chapter, Victor's feelings begin to change back. The weather is cloudy and rainy, and he decides to travel to the summit of Montanvert. He hopes to view the pure, eternal, and beautiful natural scene so he can feel joy again. He wants his spirits to be uplifted, and like mentioned earlier, nature and its beauties reflect joy and hope to Victor. As he begins to reach the highest point, is he momentarily consoled by the sublime view. He walks to the opposite side of the glacier and sees nothing else but that awful monster he created, coming towards him really fast. He fills up with rage and threatens the monster. Luckily for the monster, he was quick enough to escape from Victor, who begins to curse him and orders him to stay away. A dramatic change occurs when the monster actually starts speaking to Victor himself. He tells Victor that he wants to hold a conversation with him so they go to an icy cave and sit around the fire. Like a story, within a story, within a story, now it's the monster who begins to tell his life experiences. It's important to notice that as soon as an individual's side is presented in the book, its character's reputation also shifts. The monster is pointed out to be the villain so far, but this takes on a change as he takes his chance to justify his actions, just like Victor is doing in that ship actually.
Chapter 11:
As they sit down around the cozy fire, the monster begins his story. He tells Victor how confused he has been after being created. He talks about how he left Victor's home and ran into the woods to discover things on his own. He discovered a lot about the world, with only confusion and rejection though. He learned about light, dark, hunger, thirst, and the cold weather. He talks about how he learned about the uses of fire and the advantages it provides, such as keeping one warm and making more food. The monster tells Victor that even though the fire had great benefits to it, it burned his hand when he touched it. He grew in fear of it, yet he began to relax and use it to his benefits only. He discovered that if he added more wood to it, the fire would increase. The monster had to feed himself so while searching, he came across a small hut. He entered it and happened to scare the heck out of the old man that was inside the hut. The man started to yell and shout in fear and ran away. The monster walked out of the hut to the actual village, where he experienced high amount of rejection. People shrieked and kept their distance. They did not recognize a hideous creature like him and did not give him a chance. Everyone thought of their best interest, which was to not interact with the monster. This lead him to make a decision to stay away from people. On one of the nights, he decides to stay at a small hovel next to a cottage and in the morning, he notices a crack. When he sees through that crack, he concludes that he spots an old man, a young woman, and a young man chillin' in there.
Chapter 12:
While it is creepy, the monster begins to observe these three certain people for a while. He notices that these people are not joyful, and most of the time, they are sad and their emotional distress is shown upon their actions. He states that he wasn't sure why they were so sad, but he assumed they were. Later on, he notices that they are sad because they experience poverty, mainly HIS FAULT. He had been stealing their food, and it was bad enough they were experiencing financial difficulties. The monster instantly, feels bad and fills up with guilt so he starts to compensate for their loss. At nights, he would gather the wood and anonymously leave it at their door for "convinency." Analyzing their actions and the way they speak day by day, the monster finally picks up the language and teaches himself how to speak. He notes down the name of the young man to be Felix and the young woman to be Agatha. It's sad to realize that the monster finally grows to understand his ugliness. He looks at their faces and their physical structure and begins to admire them. After catching a glance of his own reflection from the water, he gets startled and is speechless. As time went on, winter arrived, and the routine became his daily life style. He observed the three individuals and began to like them for how much they taught him, without even knowing it.
Chapter 13:
Seasons begin to change as winter turns into spring. Note: Nature, once again, is very important because this setting leads the reader to understand why certain events are taking place. Nature is used to reflect emotions and vice versa. Except surprisingly, it's spring, but Felix is saddened. Supposedly a beautiful woman in a dark dress & veil comes by the cottage on a horse to see him. He becomes super happy as he sees her and she moves into the cottage with them. Everyone becomes happy and the monster notices that she does not even speak the same language as them. Her name is Sofie, and later she picks up the usual spoken language, just like the monster. He also teaches himself how to read, after analyzing Felix as he used Constantin-François de Volney’s Ruins of Empires to instruct Safie. The monster begins to "educate" himself by picking up facts about world history. He improves his speaking skills and learns about the human society by listening to the people speak. He relates his own situation and realizes that he has no friends. Human nature is to always juxtapose sadness with isolation, which the monster experiences at this stage. “Was I then then a monster,” he asks, “a blot upon the earth, from which all men fled, and whom all men disowned?” He considers himself deformed and begins to grow doubts. He also learns about the pleasures and obligations of the family and the process/structure of relationships between people. This saddens him because, nor is he accompanied with humans, he also lacks that family and happiness they feel at times. Anyways, I personally think the monster needs a hug. A hug can fix everything. Okay, not everything, but in this case, it WOULD kind of help, after considering the fact people think he's hideous and they point and run away from him.
Chapter 14:
From days of analyzing and observing these individuals, the monster begins to learn about the past life's experiences of these people. The old man was supposedly this respectable successful citizen in Paid and the two young individuals are his children. Safie's father was a Turk and he was accused of a crime and sentenced to death even though he was innocent (just like Justine). Felix visited the father in prison and from there, he met Safie and they fell in love. It's important to notice, that the author held that "love at first sight" concept in this novel. Whether he believes in it or not, is not justified. Felix tried to get the father out of prison and Safie let him know she was thankful for his intentions. The monster even had the copies of the letters to justify his story. The letters included the fact that Safie's mom was a Christian Arab who had been enslaved by the Turks, which stopped when she married Safie's father. Wow, so religious does come within Frankenstein and another stab at Islam is revealed. Supposedly, Safie's mother claimed Safie to be "free" from becoming a victim of being prevented from cultivature and intelligence, what Islam is responsible of (to women). This general stereotype is even portrayed in a story written by a young lady in a school. Disappointing. Anyways, so Safie wished to marry Felix because he was European and she wanted to escape from being a slave. The probem occured as Felix's family including him were exiled from France and their wealth was taken. They moved into this cottage while seeking for shelter. Safie's father was forcing her to go back with him, but she ran away and took refuge in this cottage, with her love.
Chapter 15:
One day the Monster was looking for good and he found a bag with some books and clothes. He took the books because he, too, had a thirst to obtain knowledge and know as much as he could. Victor should be able to relate to him. The books include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Sorrows of Werter, a volume of Plutarch’s Lives, and John Milton’s Paradise Lost, the last of which has the most profound effect on the monster. The monster does not realize that Paradise Lost is a fictional book and he reads it as true factual happenings. He finds the happenings in the story as reflections to his own situation. As the monster looks through his own pockets, he finds papers from Victor's diary and discovers how he was created and how Victor felt about him. This hurt him a lot, and it made him want to reveal himself to the cottagers with hopes that they would past see his ugliness and accept him for who he is, like that ever happens in this world now. The first individual he tries to confront is the old man, who could convince his children and Safie of what the monster wants him to, which is how past his exterior, he's a loving caring soul inside. One day he finds the old man by himself and starts to talk to him. But before he could even get to the main point, the children return and Felix scares the monster away.
Chapter 16:
The monster begins to become rageful and gets real hurt. He becomes tired of being rejected and hated without being given a chance to justify himself and speak for himself most importantly. Therefore, he swears to take revenge against all human beings and Victor mainly, his creator. For months, he kept on traveling and finally reached Geneva. On the way, he found a girl by herself and she seemed to be drowning. Acting out of the kindness in his heart, he rescues her, only to find that the man who was with her, shot him. He must've thought that the monster was attacking her. And this is where, in the woods, the monster finds William and discovers that he shares the same father as Victor. The monster gets so mad, that he basically chokes William to death and takes a picture of Caroline and puts it in Justine's pocket, who was supposedly sleeping in the barn. The monster tells Victor this whole story and tells him that he needs a friend. "Even Frankenstein wanted to be loved" - Laa. He tells Victor that he wants him to create a mate for him.
Chapter 17:
The monster justifies reasons of why he should have a female friend. Victor is persuaded to help him when the monster convinces him how all the bad happenings occured mainly due to the fact that the monster was lonely and didn't have a friend to spend time with. He assures Victor that he will not cause any more harm and live in South America in the jungles with his new mate. The monster becomes real happy and tells Victor that he will track him down when Victor is finished with this task. Victor is now burdened and taking a risk by creating another monster. OMG!! FINALLY DONE!! yay!! Frankenstein was a very interesting book to read, especially for the 2nd time.
Random Rambling Rants
- Laayla
- Houston, Texas, United States
- I'm Laayla. I ramble. I rant. I question. I complain... and sometimes I happen to enlighten.
Tuesday, June 23, 2009
Measure for Measure.
As most of you will agree, I just want to re-emphasize that Angelo is a SICK MAN. You know what he reminds me of? Those government officials or those in such authority. Ever hear how the ones in power are the most corrupt ones? Angelo's desire to have sexual intercourse with Isabella just shows that. Hypocrisy at its best. Just like how strong authority figures abuse their powers, the most religious figures at times are the most sinful. Angelo is guilty of being like both; trying to persecute Claudio for the same crime that he himself is guilty of (if given the chance).
I also want to point out how sometimes people see a reflection of themselves in others, as if they are staring at a mirror. Okay.. sounds weird. Let me explain. For example, a thief will be quick to assume that others are also thieves, because he himself is one and thinks he "knows how everyone thinks." People accuse others of what they are guilty of. It's almost like having self-conscience/guilt strings attached to you. I bring this up, because Angelo is this conservative strict non-corrupt individual on the outside, and yet on the inside, he's this sick pervert with wrong and sinful intentions. By asking Isabella to sleep with him, I think he might be convinced that she is like him, calm and pure on the outside, but lustful and sinful on the inside. That's why I think that he even ended up crossing the line and bluntly asking her such a thing. He probably figured, with a little hesitation, she'd give in and they'd both get what they "really want."
The lines I chose to discuss are in Act 2, scene 4. This is when Angelo confronts Isabella with his true intentions and Isabella tries to "play it off" by acting as if she thinks he's talking about him sinning by forgiving Claudio for his sinful acts. Isabella says, "It is no sin at all, but charity" (2.4.71). I'm kind of wondering here, is Isabella really "pretending" not to know what's going on, or is she really that... "innocent?" Then, right away, Angelo restates his point and tries to tell her exactly what he wants from her, "You must lay down the treasures of your body To this supposed, or else to let him suffer." (2.4.103-04). Isabella declines his offer, in order to not ruin hers and her brother's reputation even more. I think after that, it was quite interesting how Angelo claims that Isabella's response is just as cruel as the punishment her brother is getting. He says, "Were not you then as cruel as the sentence That you have slandered to?" (2.4.117-18). When I first read that, I was like "wow.. this guy has some nerves" but then I thought about it. Here, let me break it down:
Angelo is strict with his decisions and is stubborn.
Isabella is strict with her decisions and is also stubborn.
Angelo claims to be doing what is right, which is punishing someone for a crime they've done.
Isabella also claims to be doing what is right, which is not acting upon a lustful offer.
Angelo is concerned about his reputation, and that's why he is enforcing such laws.
Isabella is also concerned about her reputation, which is why she doesn't want to sleep with Angelo.
Angelo means to persecute those who do such sexual crimes, even though deep down, he'd be guilty of it too.
Isabella feels the same way, except the fact that is her own BROTHER, she disagrees with the ruling.
I think in a way, even though the situations are completely different from both perspectives, Angelo and Isabella may have a lot more in similar than we think.
I also want to point out how sometimes people see a reflection of themselves in others, as if they are staring at a mirror. Okay.. sounds weird. Let me explain. For example, a thief will be quick to assume that others are also thieves, because he himself is one and thinks he "knows how everyone thinks." People accuse others of what they are guilty of. It's almost like having self-conscience/guilt strings attached to you. I bring this up, because Angelo is this conservative strict non-corrupt individual on the outside, and yet on the inside, he's this sick pervert with wrong and sinful intentions. By asking Isabella to sleep with him, I think he might be convinced that she is like him, calm and pure on the outside, but lustful and sinful on the inside. That's why I think that he even ended up crossing the line and bluntly asking her such a thing. He probably figured, with a little hesitation, she'd give in and they'd both get what they "really want."
The lines I chose to discuss are in Act 2, scene 4. This is when Angelo confronts Isabella with his true intentions and Isabella tries to "play it off" by acting as if she thinks he's talking about him sinning by forgiving Claudio for his sinful acts. Isabella says, "It is no sin at all, but charity" (2.4.71). I'm kind of wondering here, is Isabella really "pretending" not to know what's going on, or is she really that... "innocent?" Then, right away, Angelo restates his point and tries to tell her exactly what he wants from her, "You must lay down the treasures of your body To this supposed, or else to let him suffer." (2.4.103-04). Isabella declines his offer, in order to not ruin hers and her brother's reputation even more. I think after that, it was quite interesting how Angelo claims that Isabella's response is just as cruel as the punishment her brother is getting. He says, "Were not you then as cruel as the sentence That you have slandered to?" (2.4.117-18). When I first read that, I was like "wow.. this guy has some nerves" but then I thought about it. Here, let me break it down:
Angelo is strict with his decisions and is stubborn.
Isabella is strict with her decisions and is also stubborn.
Angelo claims to be doing what is right, which is punishing someone for a crime they've done.
Isabella also claims to be doing what is right, which is not acting upon a lustful offer.
Angelo is concerned about his reputation, and that's why he is enforcing such laws.
Isabella is also concerned about her reputation, which is why she doesn't want to sleep with Angelo.
Angelo means to persecute those who do such sexual crimes, even though deep down, he'd be guilty of it too.
Isabella feels the same way, except the fact that is her own BROTHER, she disagrees with the ruling.
I think in a way, even though the situations are completely different from both perspectives, Angelo and Isabella may have a lot more in similar than we think.
Wednesday, June 10, 2009
Stand up for yourself.
For those who sit there and assume they have it the worst, don't let anyone make you think you can't think like that. Go ahead. Die in your misery. It's yours after all. It's natural to empathize with yourself, it's natural to feel targeted. For someone to judge your life and tell you to be more thankful and to stop bitching because someone has it worse than you, is UNCALLED FOR. A reality check, that's what they call it, right? Well give them a reality check. Tell them to step out because they don't live your life and until they do, they can't pass such remarks about it. If they think they can and they still do, then let them know that you did find someone who has it worse you after all. That oughta shut them up.
Monday, May 18, 2009
Hormones Lab.
Laayla Muhammad
Lab Section: 807
March 10, 2009
Indoleacetic acid (IAA), type of Auxin hormones that promote cell elongation in growing tissues and effect patterns cell differentiation, are used in this experiment on cucumber seedlings to test root growth. The cucumber seedling with IAA concentration of 10.0 mg/L will experience the most root growth because normal amount of concentration of this particular hormone causes stimulation of cell growth; meaning the lower the concentrations, the lower amount of root growth will take place. With the control group having the average root growth of 38.6 mm, the second highest cucumber seedling with the IAA concentration of 10.0 mg/L was 35.5 mm. The seedlings with concentration of 1.0 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L had lower root growths of 17 mm and 9.3 mm and the class average were as followed: the control group averaging out to 38.4 mm, 10.0 mg/L to 36.6 mm, 1.0 mg/L to 23.1 mm, and 0.1 mg/L to 20.3 mm. My hypothesis was right, that besides the control group with the most root growth, as the concentration of IAA increased so did the root growth of the cucumber seedlings; meaning that 0.1 mg/L of concentration was ended up inhibiting the root growth, while concentration of 10.0 mg/L greatly stimulated with 35.5 mm. All of this recorded data agrees with the class average length of the growth roots that also showed as concentration of Auxin increase, so does the length of the cucumber roots, besides the control group which shows cell elongation as well.
Figure 1.1- Average group data used to reveal effects of IAA (type of auxin hormone) given in different concentrations to roots, displaying root elongation (length) in mm.
Gibberellic Acid is one of many types of Gibberellins hormones that promote stem elongation in plants, but has more of a dramatic effect on mutant plants with dwarfed growth. In this experiment, comparing normal and dwarfed plants receiving two different treatments of water and gibberellic acid, I hypothesize that the dwarfed plant with gibberellic acid will experience highest amount of stem elongation meaning it will have the greatest change in height and the dwarfed plant with water will barely grow. The control for the normal plant given just water had the most height change of 20.5 cm and the dwarfed one given just water had the least height change of only 6.90 cm. Normal plant with GA had less change in height (13.5 cm) compared to the dwarfed plan given GA (17.6). The class data shows that normal plants with water grew 14.8 cm and with GA grew 16.8 cm while dwarfed plant with water grew 6.8 cm, but with GA grew 13.4 inches.
Figure 2.1 – Group average used to reveal effects of gibberellic acid (type of gibberellins hormone) on normal and dwarfed plants given two different treatments with their heights being measured in centimeters.
A growth response to gravity, gravitropism, is involved with differential inhibition of cell elongation by the hormone auxin. Gravitropism can be positive where roots grow in the direction of gravity and negative meaning away from the direction of gravity. I hypothesize that the corn seedling planted with the root oriented directly downward will grow the most when compared to: 1) upward, 2) horizontal, and 3) cut off (1 mm) at the root tip and placed horizontally. This is because they will be able to find soil, water and essential minerals easier. Results show that seeds planted downward had a net growth of 2.4 cm with the class average of 3.0 cm, but root planted horizontally grew even more with 3.5 cm. Root placed upward only grew 0.8 and the horizontal root with excited tips did not grow. The class data shows horizontally planted root grew the most with 4.1 cm, but upward one also grew 4.0 cm while the root that was horizontal with its tip excised still grew the least with only 1.2 cm. Roots horizontally orientated experiences the most net growth and planting them upward will result in barely any or no changes. My hypothesis was partially correct since roots planted downward receive essential minerals to grow more than upward positioned roots and roots with excised tips placed horizontally.
Figure 3.1 – Net growth of spouted corn roots measured in centimeters after positioning the roots in four different orientations in order to record root gravitropic response.
Lab Section: 807
March 10, 2009
Indoleacetic acid (IAA), type of Auxin hormones that promote cell elongation in growing tissues and effect patterns cell differentiation, are used in this experiment on cucumber seedlings to test root growth. The cucumber seedling with IAA concentration of 10.0 mg/L will experience the most root growth because normal amount of concentration of this particular hormone causes stimulation of cell growth; meaning the lower the concentrations, the lower amount of root growth will take place. With the control group having the average root growth of 38.6 mm, the second highest cucumber seedling with the IAA concentration of 10.0 mg/L was 35.5 mm. The seedlings with concentration of 1.0 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L had lower root growths of 17 mm and 9.3 mm and the class average were as followed: the control group averaging out to 38.4 mm, 10.0 mg/L to 36.6 mm, 1.0 mg/L to 23.1 mm, and 0.1 mg/L to 20.3 mm. My hypothesis was right, that besides the control group with the most root growth, as the concentration of IAA increased so did the root growth of the cucumber seedlings; meaning that 0.1 mg/L of concentration was ended up inhibiting the root growth, while concentration of 10.0 mg/L greatly stimulated with 35.5 mm. All of this recorded data agrees with the class average length of the growth roots that also showed as concentration of Auxin increase, so does the length of the cucumber roots, besides the control group which shows cell elongation as well.
Figure 1.1- Average group data used to reveal effects of IAA (type of auxin hormone) given in different concentrations to roots, displaying root elongation (length) in mm.
Gibberellic Acid is one of many types of Gibberellins hormones that promote stem elongation in plants, but has more of a dramatic effect on mutant plants with dwarfed growth. In this experiment, comparing normal and dwarfed plants receiving two different treatments of water and gibberellic acid, I hypothesize that the dwarfed plant with gibberellic acid will experience highest amount of stem elongation meaning it will have the greatest change in height and the dwarfed plant with water will barely grow. The control for the normal plant given just water had the most height change of 20.5 cm and the dwarfed one given just water had the least height change of only 6.90 cm. Normal plant with GA had less change in height (13.5 cm) compared to the dwarfed plan given GA (17.6). The class data shows that normal plants with water grew 14.8 cm and with GA grew 16.8 cm while dwarfed plant with water grew 6.8 cm, but with GA grew 13.4 inches.
Figure 2.1 – Group average used to reveal effects of gibberellic acid (type of gibberellins hormone) on normal and dwarfed plants given two different treatments with their heights being measured in centimeters.
A growth response to gravity, gravitropism, is involved with differential inhibition of cell elongation by the hormone auxin. Gravitropism can be positive where roots grow in the direction of gravity and negative meaning away from the direction of gravity. I hypothesize that the corn seedling planted with the root oriented directly downward will grow the most when compared to: 1) upward, 2) horizontal, and 3) cut off (1 mm) at the root tip and placed horizontally. This is because they will be able to find soil, water and essential minerals easier. Results show that seeds planted downward had a net growth of 2.4 cm with the class average of 3.0 cm, but root planted horizontally grew even more with 3.5 cm. Root placed upward only grew 0.8 and the horizontal root with excited tips did not grow. The class data shows horizontally planted root grew the most with 4.1 cm, but upward one also grew 4.0 cm while the root that was horizontal with its tip excised still grew the least with only 1.2 cm. Roots horizontally orientated experiences the most net growth and planting them upward will result in barely any or no changes. My hypothesis was partially correct since roots planted downward receive essential minerals to grow more than upward positioned roots and roots with excised tips placed horizontally.
Figure 3.1 – Net growth of spouted corn roots measured in centimeters after positioning the roots in four different orientations in order to record root gravitropic response.
Lab 9 Manual Study Guide
Development of any complex multicellular organism results from growth processes: Mitosis and cell enlargement and developmental processes f cell differentiation.
In plans, these processes begin from with activities of the meristems….
Growth: increase in size (volume and biomass)
- limited by the supply of resources that are responsible for cell enlargement and division
Development: Changes in form occurring from embryonic stage to adult stages
- under a control of genes directing hormone production, chemicals regulating growth and development
Plants require: water, light, CO2 to make energy-rich sugars and oxygen for cellular respiration
Plants also require mineral nutrients: all essential and lacking them = growth deficiency
- get them from their environment (usually the soil)
Macronutrients: needed in large amounts: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur
Micronutrients: needed in small amts: Iron, Zinc, Boron, Copper, Manganese, Chlorine, Molybdenum
Lacking particular nutrients = specific growth deficiency
In plans, these processes begin from with activities of the meristems….
Growth: increase in size (volume and biomass)
- limited by the supply of resources that are responsible for cell enlargement and division
Development: Changes in form occurring from embryonic stage to adult stages
- under a control of genes directing hormone production, chemicals regulating growth and development
Plants require: water, light, CO2 to make energy-rich sugars and oxygen for cellular respiration
Plants also require mineral nutrients: all essential and lacking them = growth deficiency
- get them from their environment (usually the soil)
Macronutrients: needed in large amounts: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur
Micronutrients: needed in small amts: Iron, Zinc, Boron, Copper, Manganese, Chlorine, Molybdenum
Lacking particular nutrients = specific growth deficiency
Lab Practical Overview. Mostly Finished.
Lab Practical Overview:
A. Polifera: Sponges
Q2: Drawing in lab review/notebook. Yes, the spicules are visible. Spicules are the structural support for sponges; they are stiff needles of silica or calcium carbonate.
Q3: They have pores and tubes and structures along with water canals. The water provides the nutrients and oxygen and carries out waste and carbon dioxide. They also have cells with different activities.
1. 4 elements: 0 # of tissues, asymmetrical, N/A, N/A
2. Location & fnx:
a. Tubes on the side are choanocytes (ostia) that move water from the outside to the center
b. osculum where water eventually exists; big opening at end
B. Cnidaria: Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals, Sea Anemones
1. 4 elements: 2 tissues, radial symmetry N/A, N/A
2. Location & Fnx:
a & b: Cnidocytes are specialized cells on tentacles that release stinging organelle called nematocyst (which have toxic barbs to hold prey and until brought to mouth for indigestion).
3. They eat using the process describes above ^
C. Rotifera: Rotifers
Q1: Corona = locomotion & wave food into mouth
Q2: The algae is eaten by the rotifer- it’s their diet plus phytoplankton
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, pseudocoelomate, protostomes
2. Cuticle covering: very close to arthropods and nematodes
3. Location & fnx:
i. Toe (cement glands (sticky) attach rotifer to objects in water)
ii. Corona (crown of celia) – wave food into the mouth, also propel themselves
iii. Celia – rapid movement makes it appear to whirl like a wheel
iv. Excretory system: Intestines
D. Platyhelminthes: Planaria (flat worms)
Q5: Single opening digestive tract visible
Q7: Acoelomate type of body cavity- meaning none
Q8: Protostomes: blastopore developing into the mouth
Q11: Sessile animals have radial symmetry, multidirectional feeding and movement. Motile animals have bilateral symmetry and directional movement to obtain food.
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, acoelomate, protostomes
2. Location & function:
a. a. Pharynx: dorsal part; towards the middle- muscular- has jaws called trophi which ground food- all rotifers have it
b. Flame cells: part of excretory system; move fluid through canals
c. Eyespot: dorsal surface between two auricles that are on the head end; pigmented cups with retinal cells; sensitive to light intensities but can’t form images
E. Annelida: Earthworm (segmented)
Q1: Function of the cuticle in earthworms is that they help with lomotion and since they have no skeleton, cuticle protect them with their bristles like feature
Q2: Advantage of segmentation: Locomotion- each segment has muscles that flex and push against rest of the body, causing the worm to move forward
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelomate, protostomes
2. Location: heart, crop where the esophagus ends, intestine
Excretory system: Nephridia: pair of tiny white coiled tubes in each segment
F. Mollusca: Clam/Mollusks
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelomates
2. 4 unifying features: Mantle, Visceral Mass, Foot
3. Location & fnx:
i. Gills: pleated appearance: use for breathing (act like lungs); trap food particles on their surface as water comes in, which is then moved to mouth by ciliary movements.
ii. Mantle: secrets calcium carbonate that produces the shell
iii. Adductor muscles: close the shell and hold it there; anterior and posterior; pink roundish with dots
iv. Foot: strong muscle used for locomotion
v. Incurrent/excurrent siphons: excretory system: incurrent is where water comes in and excurrent is where wastes and water leaves: both at the posterior end of clam…. Excurrent is more dorsal
Lab 13:
A. Nematoda: Nematodes/roundworms (type of Ecdysozoa)
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, pseudocoelum, prostotomes
2. Key characteristics: molting of the exoskeleton (cuticle made of chitin)
3. Morphological differences between male and female are that males are smaller and have a hook like tale they use during sex to hold females
4. Locate and fnx:
i. Uterus: 3rd down, below vagina/tested, in the middle
ii. Testes:
iii. Ovaries: 5th down, 3/4th way down, on top of rectum ***Remember that in nematodes there are two longitudinal tubes in the two lateral lines that are the excretory system: excrete nitrogenous wastes (but no flame cells like flat worms)
B. Arthropoda: Crayfish & Grosshopper:
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelumate, protostomes
2. 4 unifying characteristics:
3. Location and fnx on Crayfish:
i. Caraspace: expanded exoskeleton plate: feather gills under it
ii. Greenglands: excretory system: long tube-like structures compacted into glandular mass: waste and excess water pass through the pores from which antenna comes out of
4. Location and fnx on Grasshopper:
i. Spiracle: respiratory system: small openings into air tubes (trachea) which branch everywhere and bring oxygen to cells
ii. Malphigian tubules: excretory system: within them are mini tubes that empty into intestine: wastes and salts from blood
iii. Head: Upper part with compound eye, antennas, mouth, brain
iv. Thorax: Middle part: crop, gastric caeca, esophagus, heart,
v. Abdomen: spiracles, intestines, anus, ovary, rectum, ovipositor
Lab 14: Animal Diversity III – Deuterostomes (anus forming first, mouth 2nd)
A. Echinodermata: Sea Stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins
A. Remember, two symmetry: Radial in adults and bilateral in larvae before metamorphosis.
B. Location and function:
i. Mouth: food/water enterance
ii. 2 stomachs: extending can take place, able to eat bigger stuff than mouth size. Cardiac first and then pyloric.
iii. madreporite: dorsal surface; acts as a water supply and filter
iv. tube feet: movement/feeding; part of vascular water system
B. Chordata: Lancelet, fish, frogs, pigs, humans
A. Four unifying characteristics:
i. Pharyngeal gill slits: openings in the throat
ii. Notochord: running the length of the body
iii. Dorsal hollow nerve cord: bundle of nerve cells running the length of the body as well
iv. A muscular tail – extending past the anus
1. Location and function:
a. Tentacles: for feeding (located on top of the mouth)
b. Mouth: place for water and food (trapped by mucus) to enter body
c. Pharyngeal gill slits: enclosed by the body wall folds, water goes through them and they end up forming a cavity called the atrium
d. Notochord: support along the body length
e. Nerve cord: sensory
f. Intestine: digestion system
g. Anus: place for the wastes to come out of
h. Nephridia: excretory system
Remember, evidence of segmentation: gills, muscles
Evidence of nervous system: nerve cord
2. Location and function:
a. Dorsal fin: movement
b. Nerve cord: sensory
c. Notochord: support
C. Chordata: Pig
1. Location and function:
a. lungs: part of respiratory system: exchange gases
b. heart: pumping blood through blood vessels
c. liver: detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion
d. kidneys: excretory system: reg. of electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood pressure; excretion of wastes (urea and ammonium); reabsorption of glucose and amino acids; production of hormones (vitamin D and erythropoietin).
e. diaphragm: layer of muscular membrane bottom of thoracic cavity which adjust its volume
f. larynx: protection of trachea and production of sound
g. umbilical cord: connecting cord from the fetus or the embryo to the placenta: supplies oxygenated, nutritious blood
Lab 10 & 11: Animal Development
A. Egg Types:
a. Isolecithal – (same/yolk) – meaning eggs containing small amounts of evenly distributed yolk; impact of yolk is minimum
1. echinoderms, mollusks, and mammals
b. Strongly Telolecithal - (end/yolk) – meaning eggs contain large amounts of yolk concentrated at one end.
1. reptiles, birds, fish, chicken, etc.
2. nucleaus surrounded by active cytoplasm which is devoid of yolk and called blastodisc (towards animal pole where polar bodies budded from the cell during meiosis)
3. Rest of egg: vegetal hemisphere associated with vegetal pole
c. Mesolecithal – moderately telolecithal – some amphibian species
B. 1st Step: Cleavage Types: subsequent mitotic divisions
a. Holoblastic Cleavage: Isolethical eggs
1. The cell divisions pass through the entire fertilized cell
2. blastocoel forms in the middle of the blastula
b. Uneven Holoblastic Cleavage: Moderately Telolecithal:
1. Yolk will retard cytoplasmic divisions and affect cell sizes
2. Blastocoel develops in the animal hemisphere
3. Cells will be smaller and have less yolk compared to vegetal
c. Meroblastic Cleavage: Strongly telolecithal
1. Only active cytoplasm is divided during cleavage
2. produces blastoderm (cap of cells)
3. blastocoel forms between two layers of cells within blastoderm
d. Blastula: multicellular ball/disc that a zygote converts to from cleavage
e. Blastocoel: A cavity that forms within the ball of cells after blastula forms
f. Blastomeres: these are the cells of the blastula
C. Stage 2: Gastrulation: cell movement: blastula becomes gastrula
1. Three germ layers: endoderm (involution) ectoderm (surface cells) mesoderm (develops between the two)
2. Archenteron: new internal cavity that forms through involution, where surface cells go to the interior of the embryo lined by the endoderm: blastocoel disappears
3. Blastopore: what the archenteron opens to the outside through
1. protostomes: blastopore becomes the mouth
2. deuterostomes: blastopore becomes the anus
D. Stage 3: Neurulation: formation of dorsal hollow neural tube in chordates (frogs)
a. Notochord is formed from mesoderm cells
b. Neural plate (ectodermal cells above flattened)
c. neural groove: when the center of the plate sinks
d. neural folds: edges of the plate become elevated
e. neural tube: when folds fuse together; anterior becomes brain and posterior becomes nerve or spinal cord
f. notochord disappears
E. Organgenesis:
a. Organs forming from each tissue layer:
1. Ectoderm: skin, glands, nervous system
2. Mesoderm: muscles, skeleton, circulatory, reproductive and excretory system
1. In chordates, somites and notochord will form as well
3. Endoderm: digestive tract lining and organs: liver and lungs, pancreas, thyroid, thymus, etc
F. Sea Star Development:
a. Type of egg/cleavage: Holoblastic cleavage
b. Fast and slow back to polyspermy (multiple fertilization)
1. fast block: sperm fuses with egg, plasma membrane permeability changes influx of sodium ions [Na+]; changes electric potential ; less permeable
2. slow block: when egg is fertilized, calcium ions release in the ER and spread as a wave, therefore cortical granules fuse with egg cell’s plasma membrane and release their contents to the exterior, causing FERTILIZATION ENVELOPE to rise and clear away extra sperm
c. Know what stages of development listed above look like in the sea star
G. Frog Development:
a. Type of egg/cleavage: uneven holoblastic (moderately telolecithal)
b. Know what stages of development listed above look like in the frog
H. Chicken Development:
a. Egg components:
1. shell membranes
2. albumin
3. chalaza
4. yolk – rich in protein and fat
5. air chamber
b. Embryogenesis in chickens is different from sea star and frog development because: it is through meroblastic cleavage due to being a strong telolecthical type of egg.
c. Know these terms relating to only chicken development:
1. blastodisc - active cytoplasm that is devoid of yolk
2. primitive streak
3. somites
4. vitelline blood vessels
5. 4 extra embryonic membranes
Regeneration:
Morphallixus: regeneration occurring through already present tissues in the organism via reorganization. The regenerated organism is smaller than parent. Examples? 2 Hydra smaller than parents.
Epimorphosis: regeneration occurring through cellular proliferation of stem cells, where the organism is the same size as the parent. Examples? Head in planaria, same size as parents.
A. Polifera: Sponges
Q2: Drawing in lab review/notebook. Yes, the spicules are visible. Spicules are the structural support for sponges; they are stiff needles of silica or calcium carbonate.
Q3: They have pores and tubes and structures along with water canals. The water provides the nutrients and oxygen and carries out waste and carbon dioxide. They also have cells with different activities.
1. 4 elements: 0 # of tissues, asymmetrical, N/A, N/A
2. Location & fnx:
a. Tubes on the side are choanocytes (ostia) that move water from the outside to the center
b. osculum where water eventually exists; big opening at end
B. Cnidaria: Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals, Sea Anemones
1. 4 elements: 2 tissues, radial symmetry N/A, N/A
2. Location & Fnx:
a & b: Cnidocytes are specialized cells on tentacles that release stinging organelle called nematocyst (which have toxic barbs to hold prey and until brought to mouth for indigestion).
3. They eat using the process describes above ^
C. Rotifera: Rotifers
Q1: Corona = locomotion & wave food into mouth
Q2: The algae is eaten by the rotifer- it’s their diet plus phytoplankton
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, pseudocoelomate, protostomes
2. Cuticle covering: very close to arthropods and nematodes
3. Location & fnx:
i. Toe (cement glands (sticky) attach rotifer to objects in water)
ii. Corona (crown of celia) – wave food into the mouth, also propel themselves
iii. Celia – rapid movement makes it appear to whirl like a wheel
iv. Excretory system: Intestines
D. Platyhelminthes: Planaria (flat worms)
Q5: Single opening digestive tract visible
Q7: Acoelomate type of body cavity- meaning none
Q8: Protostomes: blastopore developing into the mouth
Q11: Sessile animals have radial symmetry, multidirectional feeding and movement. Motile animals have bilateral symmetry and directional movement to obtain food.
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, acoelomate, protostomes
2. Location & function:
a. a. Pharynx: dorsal part; towards the middle- muscular- has jaws called trophi which ground food- all rotifers have it
b. Flame cells: part of excretory system; move fluid through canals
c. Eyespot: dorsal surface between two auricles that are on the head end; pigmented cups with retinal cells; sensitive to light intensities but can’t form images
E. Annelida: Earthworm (segmented)
Q1: Function of the cuticle in earthworms is that they help with lomotion and since they have no skeleton, cuticle protect them with their bristles like feature
Q2: Advantage of segmentation: Locomotion- each segment has muscles that flex and push against rest of the body, causing the worm to move forward
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelomate, protostomes
2. Location: heart, crop where the esophagus ends, intestine
Excretory system: Nephridia: pair of tiny white coiled tubes in each segment
F. Mollusca: Clam/Mollusks
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelomates
2. 4 unifying features: Mantle, Visceral Mass, Foot
3. Location & fnx:
i. Gills: pleated appearance: use for breathing (act like lungs); trap food particles on their surface as water comes in, which is then moved to mouth by ciliary movements.
ii. Mantle: secrets calcium carbonate that produces the shell
iii. Adductor muscles: close the shell and hold it there; anterior and posterior; pink roundish with dots
iv. Foot: strong muscle used for locomotion
v. Incurrent/excurrent siphons: excretory system: incurrent is where water comes in and excurrent is where wastes and water leaves: both at the posterior end of clam…. Excurrent is more dorsal
Lab 13:
A. Nematoda: Nematodes/roundworms (type of Ecdysozoa)
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, pseudocoelum, prostotomes
2. Key characteristics: molting of the exoskeleton (cuticle made of chitin)
3. Morphological differences between male and female are that males are smaller and have a hook like tale they use during sex to hold females
4. Locate and fnx:
i. Uterus: 3rd down, below vagina/tested, in the middle
ii. Testes:
iii. Ovaries: 5th down, 3/4th way down, on top of rectum ***Remember that in nematodes there are two longitudinal tubes in the two lateral lines that are the excretory system: excrete nitrogenous wastes (but no flame cells like flat worms)
B. Arthropoda: Crayfish & Grosshopper:
1. 4 elements: 3 tissues, bilateral, eucoelumate, protostomes
2. 4 unifying characteristics:
3. Location and fnx on Crayfish:
i. Caraspace: expanded exoskeleton plate: feather gills under it
ii. Greenglands: excretory system: long tube-like structures compacted into glandular mass: waste and excess water pass through the pores from which antenna comes out of
4. Location and fnx on Grasshopper:
i. Spiracle: respiratory system: small openings into air tubes (trachea) which branch everywhere and bring oxygen to cells
ii. Malphigian tubules: excretory system: within them are mini tubes that empty into intestine: wastes and salts from blood
iii. Head: Upper part with compound eye, antennas, mouth, brain
iv. Thorax: Middle part: crop, gastric caeca, esophagus, heart,
v. Abdomen: spiracles, intestines, anus, ovary, rectum, ovipositor
Lab 14: Animal Diversity III – Deuterostomes (anus forming first, mouth 2nd)
A. Echinodermata: Sea Stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins
A. Remember, two symmetry: Radial in adults and bilateral in larvae before metamorphosis.
B. Location and function:
i. Mouth: food/water enterance
ii. 2 stomachs: extending can take place, able to eat bigger stuff than mouth size. Cardiac first and then pyloric.
iii. madreporite: dorsal surface; acts as a water supply and filter
iv. tube feet: movement/feeding; part of vascular water system
B. Chordata: Lancelet, fish, frogs, pigs, humans
A. Four unifying characteristics:
i. Pharyngeal gill slits: openings in the throat
ii. Notochord: running the length of the body
iii. Dorsal hollow nerve cord: bundle of nerve cells running the length of the body as well
iv. A muscular tail – extending past the anus
1. Location and function:
a. Tentacles: for feeding (located on top of the mouth)
b. Mouth: place for water and food (trapped by mucus) to enter body
c. Pharyngeal gill slits: enclosed by the body wall folds, water goes through them and they end up forming a cavity called the atrium
d. Notochord: support along the body length
e. Nerve cord: sensory
f. Intestine: digestion system
g. Anus: place for the wastes to come out of
h. Nephridia: excretory system
Remember, evidence of segmentation: gills, muscles
Evidence of nervous system: nerve cord
2. Location and function:
a. Dorsal fin: movement
b. Nerve cord: sensory
c. Notochord: support
C. Chordata: Pig
1. Location and function:
a. lungs: part of respiratory system: exchange gases
b. heart: pumping blood through blood vessels
c. liver: detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion
d. kidneys: excretory system: reg. of electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood pressure; excretion of wastes (urea and ammonium); reabsorption of glucose and amino acids; production of hormones (vitamin D and erythropoietin).
e. diaphragm: layer of muscular membrane bottom of thoracic cavity which adjust its volume
f. larynx: protection of trachea and production of sound
g. umbilical cord: connecting cord from the fetus or the embryo to the placenta: supplies oxygenated, nutritious blood
Lab 10 & 11: Animal Development
A. Egg Types:
a. Isolecithal – (same/yolk) – meaning eggs containing small amounts of evenly distributed yolk; impact of yolk is minimum
1. echinoderms, mollusks, and mammals
b. Strongly Telolecithal - (end/yolk) – meaning eggs contain large amounts of yolk concentrated at one end.
1. reptiles, birds, fish, chicken, etc.
2. nucleaus surrounded by active cytoplasm which is devoid of yolk and called blastodisc (towards animal pole where polar bodies budded from the cell during meiosis)
3. Rest of egg: vegetal hemisphere associated with vegetal pole
c. Mesolecithal – moderately telolecithal – some amphibian species
B. 1st Step: Cleavage Types: subsequent mitotic divisions
a. Holoblastic Cleavage: Isolethical eggs
1. The cell divisions pass through the entire fertilized cell
2. blastocoel forms in the middle of the blastula
b. Uneven Holoblastic Cleavage: Moderately Telolecithal:
1. Yolk will retard cytoplasmic divisions and affect cell sizes
2. Blastocoel develops in the animal hemisphere
3. Cells will be smaller and have less yolk compared to vegetal
c. Meroblastic Cleavage: Strongly telolecithal
1. Only active cytoplasm is divided during cleavage
2. produces blastoderm (cap of cells)
3. blastocoel forms between two layers of cells within blastoderm
d. Blastula: multicellular ball/disc that a zygote converts to from cleavage
e. Blastocoel: A cavity that forms within the ball of cells after blastula forms
f. Blastomeres: these are the cells of the blastula
C. Stage 2: Gastrulation: cell movement: blastula becomes gastrula
1. Three germ layers: endoderm (involution) ectoderm (surface cells) mesoderm (develops between the two)
2. Archenteron: new internal cavity that forms through involution, where surface cells go to the interior of the embryo lined by the endoderm: blastocoel disappears
3. Blastopore: what the archenteron opens to the outside through
1. protostomes: blastopore becomes the mouth
2. deuterostomes: blastopore becomes the anus
D. Stage 3: Neurulation: formation of dorsal hollow neural tube in chordates (frogs)
a. Notochord is formed from mesoderm cells
b. Neural plate (ectodermal cells above flattened)
c. neural groove: when the center of the plate sinks
d. neural folds: edges of the plate become elevated
e. neural tube: when folds fuse together; anterior becomes brain and posterior becomes nerve or spinal cord
f. notochord disappears
E. Organgenesis:
a. Organs forming from each tissue layer:
1. Ectoderm: skin, glands, nervous system
2. Mesoderm: muscles, skeleton, circulatory, reproductive and excretory system
1. In chordates, somites and notochord will form as well
3. Endoderm: digestive tract lining and organs: liver and lungs, pancreas, thyroid, thymus, etc
F. Sea Star Development:
a. Type of egg/cleavage: Holoblastic cleavage
b. Fast and slow back to polyspermy (multiple fertilization)
1. fast block: sperm fuses with egg, plasma membrane permeability changes influx of sodium ions [Na+]; changes electric potential ; less permeable
2. slow block: when egg is fertilized, calcium ions release in the ER and spread as a wave, therefore cortical granules fuse with egg cell’s plasma membrane and release their contents to the exterior, causing FERTILIZATION ENVELOPE to rise and clear away extra sperm
c. Know what stages of development listed above look like in the sea star
G. Frog Development:
a. Type of egg/cleavage: uneven holoblastic (moderately telolecithal)
b. Know what stages of development listed above look like in the frog
H. Chicken Development:
a. Egg components:
1. shell membranes
2. albumin
3. chalaza
4. yolk – rich in protein and fat
5. air chamber
b. Embryogenesis in chickens is different from sea star and frog development because: it is through meroblastic cleavage due to being a strong telolecthical type of egg.
c. Know these terms relating to only chicken development:
1. blastodisc - active cytoplasm that is devoid of yolk
2. primitive streak
3. somites
4. vitelline blood vessels
5. 4 extra embryonic membranes
Regeneration:
Morphallixus: regeneration occurring through already present tissues in the organism via reorganization. The regenerated organism is smaller than parent. Examples? 2 Hydra smaller than parents.
Epimorphosis: regeneration occurring through cellular proliferation of stem cells, where the organism is the same size as the parent. Examples? Head in planaria, same size as parents.
Chapter 4 Outline - Not complete....
Chapter 4 outline: Role of Foundation Support
Scientists viewed as individuals with massive talents in order to receive financial banking
• Nonscientists impressed even though they didn’t comprehend yet thought science = knowledge and power
Blacks did not benefit: Only white universities provided the extensive education and right training
- Accepted on exceptional cases; not able to find jobs if given chance; led to just work as teachers in a black university
- Philanthropic establishments didn’t even want think black colleges deserved to receive any support because the training they provide for scientists and the high quality research they provide isn’t a good investment
**With hardly any support, it became hard for blacks to pursue careers in the scientific field
Howard University; not set up for blacks alone; opened door to 4 white girls as well
- Purpose: All races, classes, conditions, and nationalities” – term refer cosmopolitan
- Not achieved; whites dropped
- Poor institution; 1st funds were from Bureau of Refugees (freedman and abandoned lands set up by congress after the civil war to aid free slaves)
- 1873: nation crippled financially and funds stopped
- White staff with black service; first 12 presidents = northerners connected to churches
- Black intelligent men/respected professors trained at white colleges yet worked at black institutions; Howard comes into play because it was still growing in numerous ways
- “Howard Univ. for Maintenance” – Congress gave 10,000/100,000 debt – small gift increased every year
***Wilbur P. Thirkield: New Building in 1909; recruit scientists; school for blacks migrating to cities; Just entered in time!
1. 1910: Flexnor Report: Howard and Meharry respected; helped with grants
2. World Leaders of government/education made speeches on Howard’s behalf
3. Just wanted to find funds partly out of selfish reasons; salary/summer research
WWI:
Howard = best place for recruits and commissioned officers
Just: did not want to take orders from white officers or less educated men; war horrified him; increased his teachings in electrocardiography to avoid war
Durkee presidency: gave just a knuckle-rapping for not attending morning prayers; not sympathetic to the scientific development
Charity confused with Philanthropy; Just founded funds
Scientists viewed as individuals with massive talents in order to receive financial banking
• Nonscientists impressed even though they didn’t comprehend yet thought science = knowledge and power
Blacks did not benefit: Only white universities provided the extensive education and right training
- Accepted on exceptional cases; not able to find jobs if given chance; led to just work as teachers in a black university
- Philanthropic establishments didn’t even want think black colleges deserved to receive any support because the training they provide for scientists and the high quality research they provide isn’t a good investment
**With hardly any support, it became hard for blacks to pursue careers in the scientific field
Howard University; not set up for blacks alone; opened door to 4 white girls as well
- Purpose: All races, classes, conditions, and nationalities” – term refer cosmopolitan
- Not achieved; whites dropped
- Poor institution; 1st funds were from Bureau of Refugees (freedman and abandoned lands set up by congress after the civil war to aid free slaves)
- 1873: nation crippled financially and funds stopped
- White staff with black service; first 12 presidents = northerners connected to churches
- Black intelligent men/respected professors trained at white colleges yet worked at black institutions; Howard comes into play because it was still growing in numerous ways
- “Howard Univ. for Maintenance” – Congress gave 10,000/100,000 debt – small gift increased every year
***Wilbur P. Thirkield: New Building in 1909; recruit scientists; school for blacks migrating to cities; Just entered in time!
1. 1910: Flexnor Report: Howard and Meharry respected; helped with grants
2. World Leaders of government/education made speeches on Howard’s behalf
3. Just wanted to find funds partly out of selfish reasons; salary/summer research
WWI:
Howard = best place for recruits and commissioned officers
Just: did not want to take orders from white officers or less educated men; war horrified him; increased his teachings in electrocardiography to avoid war
Durkee presidency: gave just a knuckle-rapping for not attending morning prayers; not sympathetic to the scientific development
Charity confused with Philanthropy; Just founded funds
Wednesday, May 13, 2009
Wednesday, May 06, 2009
UNICEF - Child protection from violence, exploitation and abuse - UN Security Council addresses latest report on children in armed conflict
UNICEF - Child protection from violence, exploitation and abuse - UN Security Council addresses latest report on children in armed conflict
Saturday, April 18, 2009
Book Comments
Reading “Management of Grief,” gave me an insight to how people struggle with death, especially of their loved ones. This reminds me of 9/11 and the reactions of people who lost their loved ones, which happened after this crash in London. I felt attached to this story instantly, mainly from the cultural aspect because of similarities between Pakistanis and Indians. I’m Punjabi as well, but Muslim (not Sikh or Hindu) and to most people out there, all these words just sound the same. The fact that I knew how these groups of people feel about each other helps me understand the story even more, especially because the crash mentioned in the story involves the religious/ethnic identity of Indians. For example, in the story Shaila says, “They are Sikh. They will not open up to an Indian woman.” I also have to say that I liked how Hindi words were used in the story such as: behn meaning sister, angresi meaning English speaking, ghee meaning oil/butter, zaminders meaning property owners/sellers, samosas being a typical South Asian snack that I’m a fan of, and etc. I think it’s clever how the words were used in a way where in text clues helped the readers know what the words meant anyways. Out of all three, this was my favorite story. It contained couple sayings that I thought were very deep and the whole situation with Judith was something even I’m sure my family could relate to at one point. It’s not cynicism or ignorance; it’s just the inability for the two groups to understand each other from each others perspectives.
The way the story started instantly informs the reader that something out of the ordinary is happening. It’s the same way with the story “Are These Actual Miles?” This is a great technique because rather than providing the background history first where the narrator rambles on about age/location/occupation like in “The Lifegaurd,” the readers are thrown right inside the situation taking place and then a little about everyone is revealed as they read on. In “Are these Actual Miles?” … I was kind of confused. The relationship between the couple is complicated and not strong at all, and well…. they’re filing for bankruptcy and so they are hiding away their valuables. They’re selling the convertible but why does she have to SLEEP with the guy? Was he not going to buy it otherwise? I thought since Leo talked about how Toni has skills in selling, she would actually use those, not her body.
Some of the students mentioned how “he says” “she says” bothered them in “Are These Actual Miles?” It didn’t really bother me because as I was reading the sentences, there were enough details that already helped me figure out how he or she said it. Both stories contain anger, sadness and curiosity to know what happened. The ending in both stories weren’t similar though. Leo never got to say what he wanted yet he did discover what he wanted to when he stripped Toni. Shaila never received much information about the crash besides that there was a bomb present yet she was pretty much very content by the end, ready to move on. Maybe ignorance is bliss.
The way the story started instantly informs the reader that something out of the ordinary is happening. It’s the same way with the story “Are These Actual Miles?” This is a great technique because rather than providing the background history first where the narrator rambles on about age/location/occupation like in “The Lifegaurd,” the readers are thrown right inside the situation taking place and then a little about everyone is revealed as they read on. In “Are these Actual Miles?” … I was kind of confused. The relationship between the couple is complicated and not strong at all, and well…. they’re filing for bankruptcy and so they are hiding away their valuables. They’re selling the convertible but why does she have to SLEEP with the guy? Was he not going to buy it otherwise? I thought since Leo talked about how Toni has skills in selling, she would actually use those, not her body.
Some of the students mentioned how “he says” “she says” bothered them in “Are These Actual Miles?” It didn’t really bother me because as I was reading the sentences, there were enough details that already helped me figure out how he or she said it. Both stories contain anger, sadness and curiosity to know what happened. The ending in both stories weren’t similar though. Leo never got to say what he wanted yet he did discover what he wanted to when he stripped Toni. Shaila never received much information about the crash besides that there was a bomb present yet she was pretty much very content by the end, ready to move on. Maybe ignorance is bliss.
Sunday, March 29, 2009
Friday, March 20, 2009
Moving Sex Offenders
Waukesha Sex Offender Forced To Move
Lauren Leamanczyk
WAUKESHA - For the first time, Waukesha Police have used an ordinance that prohibits sex offenders from living near parks, schools and other places that children frequent.
Thomas Donovan was convicted in 1990 of sexually assaulting two young girls. Last week, police found him living right near Cutler Park. They were called to the address for a fight and an officer recognized Donovan. He was arrested and ticketed $802.
Neighbors are glad he's being forced to move. But, they're upset that they never knew about his past while he was living near a park, two daycares, a school and a public library. "Why is he living so close to a school, a park and all these children on this block?" asked Nicole Knaack, a neighbor with a young child.
Waukesha Police arrested Donovan. He has been released from jail and will have to find a legal place to live.
------------------------------------------------------------
It's about time that they start doing this. I'm not even kidding. Fuck it. I do NOT believe in second chances when it comes to shit like this. There are about 3-4 JUST REGISTERED sex offenders living by an elementary school across the street from my house. Hmmmmm I wonder why they would allow that now? According to rules, they can't.. but no one pays any attention and guess what? 80% OF THEM END UP COMMITTING ANOTHER SEX OFFENSE! So why even give them the chance to? And shit, I'm only talking about 1) people who get caught the first time and 2) people who get caught the 2nd, 3rd, 4th...etc time.
Here popo.. instead of writing me a speeding ticket on the freeway when I'm probably the slowest person on the road.. come here and take these sex offenders away from our kids before they end up raping them and killing them. Kbye.
Wednesday, March 18, 2009
BURNS!
Burns Laayla Muhammad
October 17, 2007
Lecture section 401
There are too many individuals who suffer from burning accidents and are ignorant in knowing how these burns can become severe and change their lives completely. One thing I learned about anatomy and physiology is that there are three types of burns, which are categorized according to their depth of tissue involvement. All three types vary not only in their causes, but also the damage they have towards one’s skin and body. Burns can be hardly severe as getting sunburned and can become as extreme as one losing his life. Deaths resulting from burns are caused by infection, fluid loss, or toxic effects of burned dead tissue known as eschar. Burns can also lead to difficulty in breathing, which can also lead to death eventually.
One of the three types of burns is first-degree burns, also known as superficial burns. This type of burn only involves the epidermis, which is the top layer of the skin. The skin usually gets red and dry and really painful. Some swelling may also take place. An example of a first degree burn would be sunburn. Within a week, this burn begins to disappear and usually never leaves a scar.
Another type of burn is known as a second-degree burn, which is also known as a partial-thickness burn. This type of burn involves the epidermis and also part of the dermis, which is a skin layer underneath the epidermis. A second-degree burn may be red, tan, or even white and tends to be blistered up, causing great amounts of pain. The wound seems to open up and weep clear fluid, which makes the skin appear wet. . It takes a little bit longer to heal, which can be from 2 weeks to several months. This type of burn usually leaves a scar behind. At this point, the epidermis actually revives once the epithelial cells in the hair follicle and sweat glands divide. Someone may experience this type of burn from certain sunburns and many scalds, such as hot tap water or hot oil spills.
Unlike first and second-degree burns, third degree burns are much more intense and damaging. This type of burn, known as full-thickness burn, destroys the epidermis, dermis, and often most deeper tissues. It damages basically all of the layers along with any or all of the underlying structures such as fat, muscle, bones and nerves. If this burn hits the nerves then it becomes really painless, but otherwise this type of burn is extremely painful. It leaves a brown or black charred mark and the tissues underneath seem white. Third-degree burns produce hard, leather-like eschars and sometimes have purple fluid. Unlike the other types of burn, the skin will not regenerate on its own. If one is involved in this type of accident, s/he needs medical attention immediately. In order to heal, skin grafts are required because if left to heal on its own, contracture and severe disfigurement may take place.
Burns are caused through many different ways, such as heat, cold, electricity, friction, and radiation. Between the three types of burns, third-degrees burns are the most painful unless they hit nerves, making the process very painless. At each level, damaging effects and healing time varies due to the certain damages done to the layers of the skin. I have been involved in many burning incidents where I have gotten numerous first and second-degree burns. Most individuals are able to take care of themselves in these cases, where the skin eventually regenerates and heals on its own. Third-degree burns require immediate care and can lead to one’s death as well.
October 17, 2007
Lecture section 401
There are too many individuals who suffer from burning accidents and are ignorant in knowing how these burns can become severe and change their lives completely. One thing I learned about anatomy and physiology is that there are three types of burns, which are categorized according to their depth of tissue involvement. All three types vary not only in their causes, but also the damage they have towards one’s skin and body. Burns can be hardly severe as getting sunburned and can become as extreme as one losing his life. Deaths resulting from burns are caused by infection, fluid loss, or toxic effects of burned dead tissue known as eschar. Burns can also lead to difficulty in breathing, which can also lead to death eventually.
One of the three types of burns is first-degree burns, also known as superficial burns. This type of burn only involves the epidermis, which is the top layer of the skin. The skin usually gets red and dry and really painful. Some swelling may also take place. An example of a first degree burn would be sunburn. Within a week, this burn begins to disappear and usually never leaves a scar.
Another type of burn is known as a second-degree burn, which is also known as a partial-thickness burn. This type of burn involves the epidermis and also part of the dermis, which is a skin layer underneath the epidermis. A second-degree burn may be red, tan, or even white and tends to be blistered up, causing great amounts of pain. The wound seems to open up and weep clear fluid, which makes the skin appear wet. . It takes a little bit longer to heal, which can be from 2 weeks to several months. This type of burn usually leaves a scar behind. At this point, the epidermis actually revives once the epithelial cells in the hair follicle and sweat glands divide. Someone may experience this type of burn from certain sunburns and many scalds, such as hot tap water or hot oil spills.
Unlike first and second-degree burns, third degree burns are much more intense and damaging. This type of burn, known as full-thickness burn, destroys the epidermis, dermis, and often most deeper tissues. It damages basically all of the layers along with any or all of the underlying structures such as fat, muscle, bones and nerves. If this burn hits the nerves then it becomes really painless, but otherwise this type of burn is extremely painful. It leaves a brown or black charred mark and the tissues underneath seem white. Third-degree burns produce hard, leather-like eschars and sometimes have purple fluid. Unlike the other types of burn, the skin will not regenerate on its own. If one is involved in this type of accident, s/he needs medical attention immediately. In order to heal, skin grafts are required because if left to heal on its own, contracture and severe disfigurement may take place.
Burns are caused through many different ways, such as heat, cold, electricity, friction, and radiation. Between the three types of burns, third-degrees burns are the most painful unless they hit nerves, making the process very painless. At each level, damaging effects and healing time varies due to the certain damages done to the layers of the skin. I have been involved in many burning incidents where I have gotten numerous first and second-degree burns. Most individuals are able to take care of themselves in these cases, where the skin eventually regenerates and heals on its own. Third-degree burns require immediate care and can lead to one’s death as well.
Electrochemcial Cells
Electrochemical Cells
Laayla Muhammad
Partners: Arlee Vang, Lee Her
March 21, 2007
Purpose: To construct a series of microscale electrochemical half-cells and use the Nernst equation to experimentally determine the voltage of a Zn/Cu cell, the Ksp of AgCl, and the Kf of Cu(NH3)42+. We will basically be constructing a table of relative electrode potentials and be changing the concentration of one of the solutions to see the affects. Then we’d use the electrical potential of a cell containing Ag and AgCl along with the Nernst equation to determine the solubility product of AgCl. Finally, creating Cu (NH3)42+, the potential and the Nernst equation can be used to calculate the formation constant of the tetramminecopper (II) complex ion using microscale techniques.
Procedure:
Determining the Reduction Potentials:
First, a test cell needs to be prepared to measure the voltage of the copper and zinc half cells by putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Zn(NO3)2 solution in one of the center wells and putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 in an adjacent one. Then taking a small strip of filter paper, soaked in KNO3 solution, and draping it across the two wells, as a salt bridge. Then we polished strips of Zn and Cu metal and placed them in appropriate well containing the solutions of the ions. Then using a voltmeter, the potential difference between the two half-cells was measured, making sure the reading was positive. We made sure to note which electrode played the role of an anode and a cathode. The electrode connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while oxidation occurred at the electrode connected to the negative terminal, which was the anode. Next step was to prepare half cells in other wells by pouring some 1.0 M solution of the following ions in different wells and polishing the metals with sandpaper or steel wood so they’re shiny and inserting them into the well containing the ion of same metals (fresh trips of filter paper soaked in 1.0 M potassium nitrate were used as salt bridges): Ag|Ag+, Cu|Cu2+, Fe|Fe3+, Mg|Mg2+, Pb|Pb2+, and Zn|Zn2+. We recorded the data using a table to help organize our findings.
Reduction Equation for each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Then we composed reduction equations for each metal ion and arranged the equations in decreasing order of measured potential in an “Eo” type of table. We recorded the standard potentials using the hydrogen electrode as standard, and calculated the difference between two values using another data table to stay organized.
Measure Cell Potentials:
Next we measured the potential difference between at least 4 combinations of various electrodes and used the table of electrode potentials to predict the voltage and which half cell will be the anode and cathode. Next step involves comparing predicted and measured potentials and using a table to record the data.
Changing Ion Concentration:
We diluted 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 by adding 2 drops of the solution into 18 drops of deionized water in a small test tube. We mixed well and did this two times more to decrease the concentration to 0.0010 M. Then we poured some of this solution in one of the wells and added a polished copper wire to measure the voltage against the standard zinc electrode. We recorded the data and next step includes writing a net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and using the Nernst equation to calculate the expected voltage to be compared to the measured one.
Finding the Solubility:
We poured 10 mL of 1.0 M NaCl solution into a beaker and added 1.0 M AgNO3 and stirred. Then we poured some of the solution into one of the wells and added an Ag metal electrode and measured the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell. Next step involves writing out the net ionic equation for the reaction and using Nernst equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion and the value of the solubility of AgCl, to compare the calculated value with the measured.
Finding the Formation Constant of Cu(NH3)4:
We found the volume of one drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution by counting the number of drops in 1 mL, which was 17 drops for us. Then we put 10 mL of 6.0 M NH3 in a beaker and added 1 drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution. Then we poured some of the solution in one of the wells and added a Cu metal electrode to measure the potential difference vs. the Zn electrode, to write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell. The Cu(NH3)4 concentration is calculated by assuming that all of the Cu2+ in solution is present as the complex ion. The uncomplexed Cu2+ concentration is calculated from the cell potential using the Nernst equation. Last step includes finding the formation constant, the equilibrium constant for the equation and comparing the calculated value from the measured.
Data:
Determining Reduction Potentials
Voltage of each half-cell versus the zinc electrode:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Zn vs. Cu .801 Cu Zn
Zn vs. Fe .396 Fe Zn
Zn vs. Mg -.625 Zn Mg
Zn vs. Pb .391 Pb Zn
Zn vs. Zn 0.00 (assumed)
Reduction Equations for Each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
Cu2+ + 2e- --> Cu 0.801 0.340 0.461
Fe3+ + 3e- --> Fe 0.396 0.770 -0.374
Pb2+ + 2e- --> Pb 0.391 -0.013 0.404
Zn2+ +2e- --> Zn 0.000 -0.760 0.760
Mg2+ + 2e- --> Mg -0.625 -2.370 1.745
Measure Cell Potential:
Anode Cathode Equation for the cell reaction Predicted Potential from Experimental Data Measured Potential
Fe Mg Fe3+ + Mg --> Fe + Mg2+ 1.021 1.157
Ag Fe Fe3+ Ag --> Fe + Ag+ 1.627 0.879
Ag Pb Pb2+ + Ag --> Pb + Ag+ 1.622 0.918
Cu Mg Cu2+ Mg --> Cu + Mg2+ 1.426 1.588
Calculations:
In the first part, where we were determining the reduction potentials, we used the voltmeter to measure the potential difference between the two half cells. When the voltmeter reads a positive voltage, the black electrode, connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while the red electrode connected to the negative terminal, is the anode. Then we composed the reduction equations based on that. We assumed Zn|Zn2+ had the potential of 0.00 volts.
Example:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Then we recorded the standard potential using the hydrogren electrode as standard. We were then able to calculate the difference between the two values.
Example:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
The next part consisted of measuring cell potentials using at least 4 combinations of the various electrodes. We used the electrode potentials from the first table to predict the voltage and determine the reducing and oxidizing agents so both values can be compared.
Example:
Reduction: 2(Fe3+ + 3e- Fe) E cell: .396 V
Oxidation: (Mg Mg2+ + 2e-) E cell: .625 V
2Fe3+ + Mg Fe + Mg2+ E cell: 1.021 V
Changing the concentration of the Ion:
2 drops of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 diluted in 18 drops of dionized water provided us with 0.10 M concentration. We did it two more times to give us the final concentration of 0.0010 M. So the concentration went from 1.0 M to 0.10 M, then 0.010 M, and finally 0.0010 M.
We had to write an ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and then use the Nernst equation to calculate what the expected voltage should be, and compare to the measured value.
Reducing: Cu2++2 e- Cu(s)
Oxidizing: Zn(s) Zn2++2 e-
Equation: Cu2++Zn(s) Zn2++ Cu(s)
Trial 1: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .220
Trial 2: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .224
Average: .220 + .224 = .232 V
2
Ecell = Eo cell – RT In Q
nF
= Eo cell – 0.0592 log Q
n
Finding Solubility Product of AgCl:
In this step, almost all of the silver ions combined with chloride ions to precipitate AgCl. Since there is a large excess of Cl-, it can be assumed that the concentration of Cl- is still 1.0 M. The concentration of the silver ions will be really small (reduced). After measuring the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell, we had to write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in the well. Then we have to compare the two values with each other.
Reduction: 2 Ag2++2e- 2AgCu(s)
Oxidation: Zn(s) Zn2++ 2e-
Balanced: 2Ag2++Zn(s) Zn2++ 2Ag(s)
Next step involves using the Nernst Equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion. Therefore, we’d then calculate the solubility product of AgCl and compare the two values with each other.
2 Ag+ + Zn 2Ag + Zn2+ E cell:
Laayla Muhammad
Partners: Arlee Vang, Lee Her
March 21, 2007
Purpose: To construct a series of microscale electrochemical half-cells and use the Nernst equation to experimentally determine the voltage of a Zn/Cu cell, the Ksp of AgCl, and the Kf of Cu(NH3)42+. We will basically be constructing a table of relative electrode potentials and be changing the concentration of one of the solutions to see the affects. Then we’d use the electrical potential of a cell containing Ag and AgCl along with the Nernst equation to determine the solubility product of AgCl. Finally, creating Cu (NH3)42+, the potential and the Nernst equation can be used to calculate the formation constant of the tetramminecopper (II) complex ion using microscale techniques.
Procedure:
Determining the Reduction Potentials:
First, a test cell needs to be prepared to measure the voltage of the copper and zinc half cells by putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Zn(NO3)2 solution in one of the center wells and putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 in an adjacent one. Then taking a small strip of filter paper, soaked in KNO3 solution, and draping it across the two wells, as a salt bridge. Then we polished strips of Zn and Cu metal and placed them in appropriate well containing the solutions of the ions. Then using a voltmeter, the potential difference between the two half-cells was measured, making sure the reading was positive. We made sure to note which electrode played the role of an anode and a cathode. The electrode connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while oxidation occurred at the electrode connected to the negative terminal, which was the anode. Next step was to prepare half cells in other wells by pouring some 1.0 M solution of the following ions in different wells and polishing the metals with sandpaper or steel wood so they’re shiny and inserting them into the well containing the ion of same metals (fresh trips of filter paper soaked in 1.0 M potassium nitrate were used as salt bridges): Ag|Ag+, Cu|Cu2+, Fe|Fe3+, Mg|Mg2+, Pb|Pb2+, and Zn|Zn2+. We recorded the data using a table to help organize our findings.
Reduction Equation for each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Then we composed reduction equations for each metal ion and arranged the equations in decreasing order of measured potential in an “Eo” type of table. We recorded the standard potentials using the hydrogen electrode as standard, and calculated the difference between two values using another data table to stay organized.
Measure Cell Potentials:
Next we measured the potential difference between at least 4 combinations of various electrodes and used the table of electrode potentials to predict the voltage and which half cell will be the anode and cathode. Next step involves comparing predicted and measured potentials and using a table to record the data.
Changing Ion Concentration:
We diluted 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 by adding 2 drops of the solution into 18 drops of deionized water in a small test tube. We mixed well and did this two times more to decrease the concentration to 0.0010 M. Then we poured some of this solution in one of the wells and added a polished copper wire to measure the voltage against the standard zinc electrode. We recorded the data and next step includes writing a net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and using the Nernst equation to calculate the expected voltage to be compared to the measured one.
Finding the Solubility:
We poured 10 mL of 1.0 M NaCl solution into a beaker and added 1.0 M AgNO3 and stirred. Then we poured some of the solution into one of the wells and added an Ag metal electrode and measured the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell. Next step involves writing out the net ionic equation for the reaction and using Nernst equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion and the value of the solubility of AgCl, to compare the calculated value with the measured.
Finding the Formation Constant of Cu(NH3)4:
We found the volume of one drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution by counting the number of drops in 1 mL, which was 17 drops for us. Then we put 10 mL of 6.0 M NH3 in a beaker and added 1 drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution. Then we poured some of the solution in one of the wells and added a Cu metal electrode to measure the potential difference vs. the Zn electrode, to write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell. The Cu(NH3)4 concentration is calculated by assuming that all of the Cu2+ in solution is present as the complex ion. The uncomplexed Cu2+ concentration is calculated from the cell potential using the Nernst equation. Last step includes finding the formation constant, the equilibrium constant for the equation and comparing the calculated value from the measured.
Data:
Determining Reduction Potentials
Voltage of each half-cell versus the zinc electrode:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Zn vs. Cu .801 Cu Zn
Zn vs. Fe .396 Fe Zn
Zn vs. Mg -.625 Zn Mg
Zn vs. Pb .391 Pb Zn
Zn vs. Zn 0.00 (assumed)
Reduction Equations for Each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
Cu2+ + 2e- --> Cu 0.801 0.340 0.461
Fe3+ + 3e- --> Fe 0.396 0.770 -0.374
Pb2+ + 2e- --> Pb 0.391 -0.013 0.404
Zn2+ +2e- --> Zn 0.000 -0.760 0.760
Mg2+ + 2e- --> Mg -0.625 -2.370 1.745
Measure Cell Potential:
Anode Cathode Equation for the cell reaction Predicted Potential from Experimental Data Measured Potential
Fe Mg Fe3+ + Mg --> Fe + Mg2+ 1.021 1.157
Ag Fe Fe3+ Ag --> Fe + Ag+ 1.627 0.879
Ag Pb Pb2+ + Ag --> Pb + Ag+ 1.622 0.918
Cu Mg Cu2+ Mg --> Cu + Mg2+ 1.426 1.588
Calculations:
In the first part, where we were determining the reduction potentials, we used the voltmeter to measure the potential difference between the two half cells. When the voltmeter reads a positive voltage, the black electrode, connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while the red electrode connected to the negative terminal, is the anode. Then we composed the reduction equations based on that. We assumed Zn|Zn2+ had the potential of 0.00 volts.
Example:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Then we recorded the standard potential using the hydrogren electrode as standard. We were then able to calculate the difference between the two values.
Example:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
The next part consisted of measuring cell potentials using at least 4 combinations of the various electrodes. We used the electrode potentials from the first table to predict the voltage and determine the reducing and oxidizing agents so both values can be compared.
Example:
Reduction: 2(Fe3+ + 3e- Fe) E cell: .396 V
Oxidation: (Mg Mg2+ + 2e-) E cell: .625 V
2Fe3+ + Mg Fe + Mg2+ E cell: 1.021 V
Changing the concentration of the Ion:
2 drops of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 diluted in 18 drops of dionized water provided us with 0.10 M concentration. We did it two more times to give us the final concentration of 0.0010 M. So the concentration went from 1.0 M to 0.10 M, then 0.010 M, and finally 0.0010 M.
We had to write an ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and then use the Nernst equation to calculate what the expected voltage should be, and compare to the measured value.
Reducing: Cu2++2 e- Cu(s)
Oxidizing: Zn(s) Zn2++2 e-
Equation: Cu2++Zn(s) Zn2++ Cu(s)
Trial 1: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .220
Trial 2: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .224
Average: .220 + .224 = .232 V
2
Ecell = Eo cell – RT In Q
nF
= Eo cell – 0.0592 log Q
n
Finding Solubility Product of AgCl:
In this step, almost all of the silver ions combined with chloride ions to precipitate AgCl. Since there is a large excess of Cl-, it can be assumed that the concentration of Cl- is still 1.0 M. The concentration of the silver ions will be really small (reduced). After measuring the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell, we had to write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in the well. Then we have to compare the two values with each other.
Reduction: 2 Ag2++2e- 2AgCu(s)
Oxidation: Zn(s) Zn2++ 2e-
Balanced: 2Ag2++Zn(s) Zn2++ 2Ag(s)
Next step involves using the Nernst Equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion. Therefore, we’d then calculate the solubility product of AgCl and compare the two values with each other.
2 Ag+ + Zn 2Ag + Zn2+ E cell:
Excuses for prayers
They say when you bow down and pray to God, things become clearer. They seem to fall right into their places where you can pick them up, take them with you, and move on. Maybe that’s why I haven’t been able to move on. I haven’t prayed in a while. Things have been keeping me busy… but the fact is, praying is not one of my top priorities. I will rush to do homework, cook, and clean even if it is a burden. Praying will actually benefit me the most, yet I manage to create excuses because I am able to get away from the consequences for now. Even though God is likely to punish me sooner or later, I feel as if it’s not direct and that not doing my homework will hurt me more. The truth is, I’m hurting myself more and more every day by avoiding prayers. It is as if I am digging my own grave, and then complaining about why it has been dug. I have been in misery because I feel as if nothing in this world has the ability to fulfill my thirst for satisfaction. I cannot be content. I am constantly holding pessimistic thoughts because reality is harsh. I cannot imagine coming up with foolish dreams that I know I will not achieve. It has been a burden knowing my weaknesses because there are certain circumstances where I want to forget them and pretend that they do not even exist.
Tu Jahan
Laayla Muhammad
Block 1
May 23, 2007
“Tu Jahan” (wherever you are)
The song “Tu Jahan” by the movie Salaam Namaste can be classified as a Romantic song. Romanticism is the emphasis on the personal emotional and dramatic aspects of historical subject matter. When implying such a concept to this song, it becomes easier to view the details that make it true. This Pakistani Punjabi song is composed of lyrics that show a story about two lovers who are deeply in love with one another. Both individuals are expressing their love for one another in the most maudlin way ever. They are using metaphors and analogies to compare the strength of the love they have for each other. Both lovers take turns expressing their emotions and it becomes clear to the listeners, that due to heavy exaggerations and dramatic comparisons, this song is an example of Romanticism at its peak.
The song starts out with the chorus, which sets the mood of the song instantly. With a dramatic phrase such as, “I will walk alongside you, just like the sky” it shows why one could consider this song to be Romantic. Instead of just stating that he will always be there for her, he compares his presence’s existence to the sky. As the song continues to play, analogies used in the 1st verse exposes the emotional tone it holds. The lover expresses his care by stating that he will protect her from the sun by becoming her shade rather than just stating he will be there for her in need. He emphasizes his presence around her to comfort her, and uses examples such as being her shadow when she is alone and bringing relief to her when she is in distress. Immediately, the girl starts singing with a dramatic tone, explaining how she can finally live now that he is here with her. She compares the joy she feels to a net of happiness and claims that she has either lost herself, or has found everything she’s been seeking. Such a statement reveals the over-sentimental tone of the poem once again.
The 2nd verse of the song begins with the lover showing the sacrifices he can make in order to ensure that the love of his life is in comfort and ease. He states “let the sorrows be cast on me” and “let me tackle with the restlessness” as if he has the ability to handle not only his, but her problems as well. He informs her that if anything hurts her, she can let it “befall” on him. His words seem fancy and make him seem like a heroic Romeo who is ready to rescue his Juliet. With that said; the female lover responses by stating that her heart just wanted someone to claim and she wanted no secrets to exist between the two. She compares what she’s experiencing to a dream and tries not to wake up. Once again, the female is in a utopian environment where she feels content enough to compare it to being in a dream.
Such phrases seem to take the listeners to a fantasy story-line where two lovers are in a world of their own where nothing else matters. The male lover supposedly is some heroic man who can bare any trouble that comes his way and the female lover is in some sort of dream land, strangled in a net of what else, but happiness. It seems pretty obvious to the readers that the two have excessive love for one another. The song reminds listeners about theatrical plays such as “Romeo and Juliet” and “MacBeth” where dramatic aspects of a relationship are emphasized greatly. Unlike Realism, the lovers aren’t focusing on matters that could benefit them in a relationship. Instead, they are talking about the sun, skies, and dreams. The chorus states how wherever one of them is, the other one will be there, which is obviously impossible. Emphasis on the emotional and expressive lyrics of this song categorizes it to fall under Romanticism.
Block 1
May 23, 2007
“Tu Jahan” (wherever you are)
The song “Tu Jahan” by the movie Salaam Namaste can be classified as a Romantic song. Romanticism is the emphasis on the personal emotional and dramatic aspects of historical subject matter. When implying such a concept to this song, it becomes easier to view the details that make it true. This Pakistani Punjabi song is composed of lyrics that show a story about two lovers who are deeply in love with one another. Both individuals are expressing their love for one another in the most maudlin way ever. They are using metaphors and analogies to compare the strength of the love they have for each other. Both lovers take turns expressing their emotions and it becomes clear to the listeners, that due to heavy exaggerations and dramatic comparisons, this song is an example of Romanticism at its peak.
The song starts out with the chorus, which sets the mood of the song instantly. With a dramatic phrase such as, “I will walk alongside you, just like the sky” it shows why one could consider this song to be Romantic. Instead of just stating that he will always be there for her, he compares his presence’s existence to the sky. As the song continues to play, analogies used in the 1st verse exposes the emotional tone it holds. The lover expresses his care by stating that he will protect her from the sun by becoming her shade rather than just stating he will be there for her in need. He emphasizes his presence around her to comfort her, and uses examples such as being her shadow when she is alone and bringing relief to her when she is in distress. Immediately, the girl starts singing with a dramatic tone, explaining how she can finally live now that he is here with her. She compares the joy she feels to a net of happiness and claims that she has either lost herself, or has found everything she’s been seeking. Such a statement reveals the over-sentimental tone of the poem once again.
The 2nd verse of the song begins with the lover showing the sacrifices he can make in order to ensure that the love of his life is in comfort and ease. He states “let the sorrows be cast on me” and “let me tackle with the restlessness” as if he has the ability to handle not only his, but her problems as well. He informs her that if anything hurts her, she can let it “befall” on him. His words seem fancy and make him seem like a heroic Romeo who is ready to rescue his Juliet. With that said; the female lover responses by stating that her heart just wanted someone to claim and she wanted no secrets to exist between the two. She compares what she’s experiencing to a dream and tries not to wake up. Once again, the female is in a utopian environment where she feels content enough to compare it to being in a dream.
Such phrases seem to take the listeners to a fantasy story-line where two lovers are in a world of their own where nothing else matters. The male lover supposedly is some heroic man who can bare any trouble that comes his way and the female lover is in some sort of dream land, strangled in a net of what else, but happiness. It seems pretty obvious to the readers that the two have excessive love for one another. The song reminds listeners about theatrical plays such as “Romeo and Juliet” and “MacBeth” where dramatic aspects of a relationship are emphasized greatly. Unlike Realism, the lovers aren’t focusing on matters that could benefit them in a relationship. Instead, they are talking about the sun, skies, and dreams. The chorus states how wherever one of them is, the other one will be there, which is obviously impossible. Emphasis on the emotional and expressive lyrics of this song categorizes it to fall under Romanticism.
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
Laayla Muhammad
Ethics – Philo 241
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
The morally right action to take in everyday life experiences can be determined using various methods such as Utilitarian and Kantian analysis. Each of these methods help one arrive at a predicament in how to act accordingly to given situations. In this case, Tip and Top, both detectives, are dealing with a situation where they are thinking of acting a certain way but aren’t sure if it will provide the most utility at the end. They wish to get Zip, a dangerous criminal off the street; because they are convinced he is guilty. The only problem is that if they follow the legal rules they are to follow and provide Zip with a lawyer, they will not get a conviction out of him and therefore, will lose the case. Zip will be back on the street and will be selling drugs to children once again. Coercing a confession seems like a right decision, but also a wrong thing to do. Using Utilitarian and Kantian analysis, Tip and Top can arrive at a solution that produces the most utility.
The utilitarian analysis consists of one considering all the options one has and also acknowledging the consequences for all the choices. Each consequence helps determine the utility and the probability, which helps the person make the right decision at the end. Tip and Top’s options in this situation consists of summoning a lawyer and not coercing a confession, or not summoning a lawyer and coercing a confession. If Tip and Top decide to summon a lawyer, the consequences of that action will be either that Zip is back on the streets or that Zip is still found guilty. Not summoning up a lawyer will result in either locking up Zip in prison or getting caught if Zip does end up making a report about such harassment. Every consequence produces a certain amount of utility, but the main component lies in the probability of those consequences ever taking place. When summoning a lawyer, the utility of Zip being back on the streets is low while the probability of that happening is near certainty. In contrast, if Zip is still found guilty, the utility would be higher than high because they did the “right thing” and were able to get what they wanted, yet the probability of this consequence is lower than low. When not summoning a lawyer for Zip, the consequence of locking up Zip and the drug ring has high amount of utility and probability while Zip reporting them to another authority produces a low utility and has low probability. Therefore, according to the Utilitarianism analysis, the right thing to do would be to not summon up a lawyer and most likely, Zip will be locked up and the drug ring will finally end.
The Kantian Analysis helps one execute the right decision through the categorical imperative procedure, known as the CI procedure. It consists of certain steps that one needs to take in order to get to arrive at a solution. Tip and Top will need to create a maxim and fill out the form, “I am to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z.” In this case, they are to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Next step involves generalizing the maxim so that everyone is to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z. In this case, everyone is to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Third step states that the maxim should be transformed into a law of nature so everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to promote Z. Therefore, everyone should refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. The next step involves figuring out the perturbed social world in where one asks himself the question, “what would the world be like with the new law of nature?” In this step, the new law is common knowledge. In this case, if everyone knew that detectives would not summon a lawyer and instead would coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote decreasing of violence and drug abuse, they would not even have lawyers to begin with and innocent people would be found guilty regardless of any evidence. One of the two main questions to ask afterwards is, “Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?” This is where Tip and Top would consider that in the PSW, refusing to summon up a lawyer and coercing a confession in circumstances where it will enable them to get a criminal off the street and break up a drug ring will be effective in order to decrease violence and drug abuse in society. If effective, they should move on to the next consideration in which they should ask themselves, “Could I rationally choose to live in the PSW?” The answer to this would be “no” because Tip and Top would not choose to live in a world where they could be innocent and yet would be forced into confessing something they haven’t done without any legal help from their lawyer because if they did so, it would not be rational.
Ethics – Philo 241
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
The morally right action to take in everyday life experiences can be determined using various methods such as Utilitarian and Kantian analysis. Each of these methods help one arrive at a predicament in how to act accordingly to given situations. In this case, Tip and Top, both detectives, are dealing with a situation where they are thinking of acting a certain way but aren’t sure if it will provide the most utility at the end. They wish to get Zip, a dangerous criminal off the street; because they are convinced he is guilty. The only problem is that if they follow the legal rules they are to follow and provide Zip with a lawyer, they will not get a conviction out of him and therefore, will lose the case. Zip will be back on the street and will be selling drugs to children once again. Coercing a confession seems like a right decision, but also a wrong thing to do. Using Utilitarian and Kantian analysis, Tip and Top can arrive at a solution that produces the most utility.
The utilitarian analysis consists of one considering all the options one has and also acknowledging the consequences for all the choices. Each consequence helps determine the utility and the probability, which helps the person make the right decision at the end. Tip and Top’s options in this situation consists of summoning a lawyer and not coercing a confession, or not summoning a lawyer and coercing a confession. If Tip and Top decide to summon a lawyer, the consequences of that action will be either that Zip is back on the streets or that Zip is still found guilty. Not summoning up a lawyer will result in either locking up Zip in prison or getting caught if Zip does end up making a report about such harassment. Every consequence produces a certain amount of utility, but the main component lies in the probability of those consequences ever taking place. When summoning a lawyer, the utility of Zip being back on the streets is low while the probability of that happening is near certainty. In contrast, if Zip is still found guilty, the utility would be higher than high because they did the “right thing” and were able to get what they wanted, yet the probability of this consequence is lower than low. When not summoning a lawyer for Zip, the consequence of locking up Zip and the drug ring has high amount of utility and probability while Zip reporting them to another authority produces a low utility and has low probability. Therefore, according to the Utilitarianism analysis, the right thing to do would be to not summon up a lawyer and most likely, Zip will be locked up and the drug ring will finally end.
The Kantian Analysis helps one execute the right decision through the categorical imperative procedure, known as the CI procedure. It consists of certain steps that one needs to take in order to get to arrive at a solution. Tip and Top will need to create a maxim and fill out the form, “I am to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z.” In this case, they are to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Next step involves generalizing the maxim so that everyone is to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z. In this case, everyone is to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Third step states that the maxim should be transformed into a law of nature so everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to promote Z. Therefore, everyone should refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. The next step involves figuring out the perturbed social world in where one asks himself the question, “what would the world be like with the new law of nature?” In this step, the new law is common knowledge. In this case, if everyone knew that detectives would not summon a lawyer and instead would coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote decreasing of violence and drug abuse, they would not even have lawyers to begin with and innocent people would be found guilty regardless of any evidence. One of the two main questions to ask afterwards is, “Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?” This is where Tip and Top would consider that in the PSW, refusing to summon up a lawyer and coercing a confession in circumstances where it will enable them to get a criminal off the street and break up a drug ring will be effective in order to decrease violence and drug abuse in society. If effective, they should move on to the next consideration in which they should ask themselves, “Could I rationally choose to live in the PSW?” The answer to this would be “no” because Tip and Top would not choose to live in a world where they could be innocent and yet would be forced into confessing something they haven’t done without any legal help from their lawyer because if they did so, it would not be rational.
Difference in Carbon Dioxide Production
Laayla Muhammad
Differences in Carbon Dioxide Production
Problem: Do the variations in levels of physical activity alter the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by a person?
Hypothesis: If a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; then the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide.
Procedure (including materials):
1. Gather all materials, which in this experiment are: a 125 mL flask, bromthymol blue, a 50 mL beaker, water, 2 straws, a stop watch, and two individuals (for testing reasons).
2. Fill a 125 mL flask with bromthymol blue
3. Fill a beaker with about 20-40 mL of water
4. Using a straw, exhale air (carbon dioxide) into a flask containing the bromthymol blue.
5. Use a stop watch o record the amount of time it takes to change the solution to green (a point it becomes acidic).
6. Record (by observation) the color of the solution, which is the end point for that trial.
7. Now change the acidic solution back to basic by adding drops of water (as needed). Record the number of drops.
8. Repeat steps 4-7 using a different person, and a different straw.
9. Now do trials 3 and 4 using the same people, but after they have stayed active for about 1 minute.
10. Record all data.
Data:
Trials Physically Active? Time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Average time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Drops of water it took the solution to become basic again
1
No
5:14
4:62 20
2
No
4:10
18
3
Yes
2:24
1.63 15
4
Yes 1:02 11
Conclusion:
To experimentally find out if a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; it was hypothesized that the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide. According to the data collected from the numerous trials during the experiment, the hypothesis was discovered to be correct. This can be proven by scrutinizing the trials by comparing them. Both individuals, when inactive, took more time changing the basic solution to acidic with the average time of 4 minutes and 62 seconds. Yet, when the same individuals became active for about 1 minute, it took them only about average of 1 minute and 63 seconds to change the solution to acidic. The difference of time between the two types of collected data is 3 minutes and 59 seconds. This shows that an active person will produce about 4 times the carbon dioxide than an inactive person.
There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. One of the errors includes the fact that not all trials had the same end point when it came to observing when the solution was completely acidic. Maybe at one point, the solution was claimed to be acidic as it turned light green while some other time, it was claimed acidic when turning yellow. This could have prevented us from recording an accurate data, where the time taken for the color changes could not be reliable. Another error that could have taken place was that we did not count for the number of breaks a person took while blowing. The first person could have taken 14 short breaks while the other person could have taken 14 long ones. When active, a person would probably take more frequent breaks. Another error that could have altered the solutions was the drops of water used to change the solution back to basic. Maybe there were not enough drops put into the beaker that would cause the solution to still remain a bit acidic, and change to a light greenish color very quickly. An error that could have been easily prevented was that one of the persons was chewing Winter Fresh gum while performing the experiment. That could have altered the acidity of the carbon dioxide going in the solution, which could have caused the solution to become acidic slower. All these errors could have affected the time it took for the solution to become acidic.
I have learned that an active person undergoes a higher amount of heart pulses, which causes him/her to intake oxygen more frequently, and therefore, release more carbon dioxide. It would be interesting to figure out whether the types of active workout affect how much carbon dioxide will be produced and also if a person with an active life has the ability to control his/her heart pulse in a “resting” stage and therefore, be able to produce less carbon dioxide.
Differences in Carbon Dioxide Production
Problem: Do the variations in levels of physical activity alter the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by a person?
Hypothesis: If a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; then the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide.
Procedure (including materials):
1. Gather all materials, which in this experiment are: a 125 mL flask, bromthymol blue, a 50 mL beaker, water, 2 straws, a stop watch, and two individuals (for testing reasons).
2. Fill a 125 mL flask with bromthymol blue
3. Fill a beaker with about 20-40 mL of water
4. Using a straw, exhale air (carbon dioxide) into a flask containing the bromthymol blue.
5. Use a stop watch o record the amount of time it takes to change the solution to green (a point it becomes acidic).
6. Record (by observation) the color of the solution, which is the end point for that trial.
7. Now change the acidic solution back to basic by adding drops of water (as needed). Record the number of drops.
8. Repeat steps 4-7 using a different person, and a different straw.
9. Now do trials 3 and 4 using the same people, but after they have stayed active for about 1 minute.
10. Record all data.
Data:
Trials Physically Active? Time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Average time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Drops of water it took the solution to become basic again
1
No
5:14
4:62 20
2
No
4:10
18
3
Yes
2:24
1.63 15
4
Yes 1:02 11
Conclusion:
To experimentally find out if a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; it was hypothesized that the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide. According to the data collected from the numerous trials during the experiment, the hypothesis was discovered to be correct. This can be proven by scrutinizing the trials by comparing them. Both individuals, when inactive, took more time changing the basic solution to acidic with the average time of 4 minutes and 62 seconds. Yet, when the same individuals became active for about 1 minute, it took them only about average of 1 minute and 63 seconds to change the solution to acidic. The difference of time between the two types of collected data is 3 minutes and 59 seconds. This shows that an active person will produce about 4 times the carbon dioxide than an inactive person.
There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. One of the errors includes the fact that not all trials had the same end point when it came to observing when the solution was completely acidic. Maybe at one point, the solution was claimed to be acidic as it turned light green while some other time, it was claimed acidic when turning yellow. This could have prevented us from recording an accurate data, where the time taken for the color changes could not be reliable. Another error that could have taken place was that we did not count for the number of breaks a person took while blowing. The first person could have taken 14 short breaks while the other person could have taken 14 long ones. When active, a person would probably take more frequent breaks. Another error that could have altered the solutions was the drops of water used to change the solution back to basic. Maybe there were not enough drops put into the beaker that would cause the solution to still remain a bit acidic, and change to a light greenish color very quickly. An error that could have been easily prevented was that one of the persons was chewing Winter Fresh gum while performing the experiment. That could have altered the acidity of the carbon dioxide going in the solution, which could have caused the solution to become acidic slower. All these errors could have affected the time it took for the solution to become acidic.
I have learned that an active person undergoes a higher amount of heart pulses, which causes him/her to intake oxygen more frequently, and therefore, release more carbon dioxide. It would be interesting to figure out whether the types of active workout affect how much carbon dioxide will be produced and also if a person with an active life has the ability to control his/her heart pulse in a “resting” stage and therefore, be able to produce less carbon dioxide.
Corrections for Exam 2 - Bio 203
Laayla Muhammad
Corrections for Exam 2
Question 3:
Arrange the following in the proper order from the deepest (1) to most superficial (4).
The deepest layer (1) is the endomysium since it surrounds the skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) and allows room for blood capillaries and nerve fibers to reach each muscle fiber. The second deepest layer is the perimysium, a thicker connective tissue sheath, as it separates each fascicle from neighboring ones. The third deepest layer is called the Epimysium since it actually covers the muscle as a whole. Therefore, the deep fascia (4) would have to be the least deep or most superficial layer of the muscle since it surrounds the actual muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels of the body.
Question 4:
Which three of the following descriptions apply to the dermal papillae?
The three of the following descriptions that apply to the dermal papillae are: a) they prevent slippage at dermal-epidermal boundary, d) they allow nerves and capillaries to come closer to the external surface of the body in some areas, and f) they allow regeneration of the stratum granulosum. All of these choices are true due to certain factual reasons. The boundary between the epidermis and the dermis is histologically conspicuous and usually wavy. The upward waves are fingerlike extensions of the dermis known as dermal papillae. The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which is an arrangement that resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. In highly sensitive areas such as the lips and the genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface.
Question 13:
Match the muscle names with the naming criterion.
The muscle name known as transverses is not a location, but rather falls into the criterion of an orientation (5). The term itself means transverse, or in other words, situated or lying across. This term for example, is used in the muscle known as transverses abdominis.
Question 21:
Put the following events of endochrondral bone formation in the proper order.
Endochrondral bone formation involves several steps that occur in an order. (1) The first step involves chondrocyte hypertrophy and the formation of supportive bony collar. The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model, serving as support for the new bone. (2) The next step involves the invasion by blood vessels and creation of primary marrow space. Basically, a periosteal bud invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes and the vascularization carries osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and hemopoietic cells, which turn into bone marrow later inside. (3) Later, blood vessels grow into secondary marrow space in epiphyses. As growth develops, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and stops. (4) After obliteration of the epiphyseal plate and mix of compact and trabecular bone, articular cartilage remains.
Question 22:
Match each of the joints in the following list to the joint type.
Interphalangeal joints are not condyloid joints, and in fact, are hinge joints (2). This is because the articular surfaces are moulded to each other to permit motion only in one plane, which is forward and backward; movements being extension and flexion. Altantoaxial is actually a pivot joint (4), since there is a pivot articulation between the odontoid process of the axis and the ring formed by the anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas. Radiocarpal joint (wrist-joint) is a condyloid articulation (6) and allows three degrees of freedom. Movements that are permitted from this joint are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction, which the radiocarpal joint permits as well.
Question 26:
Which type of joint is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column?
The type of joint that is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column is symphyses (d), where two bones are joined by fibrocartilage. The joint between the bodies of two vertebrae, united by an intervertebral disc is an example of this type of joint. Therefore, each intervertebral disc permits only slight movement between adjacent vertebrae.
Question 27:
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are ...
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are a circular layer of smooth muscle surrounded by a longitudinal layer of smooth muscle (a). This is a single-unit smooth muscle and in many of the hollow viscera, it forms two or more layers, typically an inner circular layer, in which the myocytes encircle the organ and an outer longitudinal layer in which the myocytes run lengthwise along the organ. The myoctes of this type of muscle are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions.
Question 33:
This image illustrates the relationship between nerve stimulus and muscle response. Which of the following statements is the best description of the relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image?
The relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image is represented by choice b) the strength of the contraction is increased when the frequency of stimulation by the nerve increases to the point where the muscle fiber cannot relax completely between twitches. The force of each twitch builds on the previous one. At high stimulus frequency, the muscle does not have time to relax at all between stimuli and exhibits a state of continual contraction with about four times as much tension as a single twitch. Therefore, tension declines as the muscle fatigues.
Question 36:
What is the functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1?
The functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1 is that the lateral movement of the spinous process is usually restricted by its articulation with the dorsal arch of the vertebra below it. Without it, the atlas is free to rotate (c). The spinous process provides points of attachment for ligaments and spinal muscles. Yet, the atlas does not have a body due to the fact that its body has fused with that of the next vertebra. Therefore, the atlas supports the globe of the head and is specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. It allows one to nod his/her head to indicate “yes” for example.
Question 39:
Dermal papillae are numerous and form relatively high peaks in the palmar and plantar skin, but are more rare in the skin of the face and abdomen. Which of the following is an appropriate interpretation of this difference (check the 2 best answers)?
Dermal papillae form relatively high peaks in the palmar and planter skin when compared to the skin of the face and abdomen due to several reasons. The soles and palms are likely to be under shearing stress, so there is a great need to prevent slippage of the epidermis (a). The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. There are also delicate furrows that divide the skin into tiny rectangular to rhomboid areas on hands and wrists that the dermal papillae is responsible of. In highly sensitive areas lips and genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface. Therefore, it is important to have the papillae close to the surface to allow for a dense covering of body hair on these structures (d).
Corrections for Exam 2
Question 3:
Arrange the following in the proper order from the deepest (1) to most superficial (4).
The deepest layer (1) is the endomysium since it surrounds the skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) and allows room for blood capillaries and nerve fibers to reach each muscle fiber. The second deepest layer is the perimysium, a thicker connective tissue sheath, as it separates each fascicle from neighboring ones. The third deepest layer is called the Epimysium since it actually covers the muscle as a whole. Therefore, the deep fascia (4) would have to be the least deep or most superficial layer of the muscle since it surrounds the actual muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels of the body.
Question 4:
Which three of the following descriptions apply to the dermal papillae?
The three of the following descriptions that apply to the dermal papillae are: a) they prevent slippage at dermal-epidermal boundary, d) they allow nerves and capillaries to come closer to the external surface of the body in some areas, and f) they allow regeneration of the stratum granulosum. All of these choices are true due to certain factual reasons. The boundary between the epidermis and the dermis is histologically conspicuous and usually wavy. The upward waves are fingerlike extensions of the dermis known as dermal papillae. The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which is an arrangement that resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. In highly sensitive areas such as the lips and the genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface.
Question 13:
Match the muscle names with the naming criterion.
The muscle name known as transverses is not a location, but rather falls into the criterion of an orientation (5). The term itself means transverse, or in other words, situated or lying across. This term for example, is used in the muscle known as transverses abdominis.
Question 21:
Put the following events of endochrondral bone formation in the proper order.
Endochrondral bone formation involves several steps that occur in an order. (1) The first step involves chondrocyte hypertrophy and the formation of supportive bony collar. The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model, serving as support for the new bone. (2) The next step involves the invasion by blood vessels and creation of primary marrow space. Basically, a periosteal bud invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes and the vascularization carries osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and hemopoietic cells, which turn into bone marrow later inside. (3) Later, blood vessels grow into secondary marrow space in epiphyses. As growth develops, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and stops. (4) After obliteration of the epiphyseal plate and mix of compact and trabecular bone, articular cartilage remains.
Question 22:
Match each of the joints in the following list to the joint type.
Interphalangeal joints are not condyloid joints, and in fact, are hinge joints (2). This is because the articular surfaces are moulded to each other to permit motion only in one plane, which is forward and backward; movements being extension and flexion. Altantoaxial is actually a pivot joint (4), since there is a pivot articulation between the odontoid process of the axis and the ring formed by the anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas. Radiocarpal joint (wrist-joint) is a condyloid articulation (6) and allows three degrees of freedom. Movements that are permitted from this joint are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction, which the radiocarpal joint permits as well.
Question 26:
Which type of joint is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column?
The type of joint that is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column is symphyses (d), where two bones are joined by fibrocartilage. The joint between the bodies of two vertebrae, united by an intervertebral disc is an example of this type of joint. Therefore, each intervertebral disc permits only slight movement between adjacent vertebrae.
Question 27:
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are ...
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are a circular layer of smooth muscle surrounded by a longitudinal layer of smooth muscle (a). This is a single-unit smooth muscle and in many of the hollow viscera, it forms two or more layers, typically an inner circular layer, in which the myocytes encircle the organ and an outer longitudinal layer in which the myocytes run lengthwise along the organ. The myoctes of this type of muscle are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions.
Question 33:
This image illustrates the relationship between nerve stimulus and muscle response. Which of the following statements is the best description of the relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image?
The relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image is represented by choice b) the strength of the contraction is increased when the frequency of stimulation by the nerve increases to the point where the muscle fiber cannot relax completely between twitches. The force of each twitch builds on the previous one. At high stimulus frequency, the muscle does not have time to relax at all between stimuli and exhibits a state of continual contraction with about four times as much tension as a single twitch. Therefore, tension declines as the muscle fatigues.
Question 36:
What is the functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1?
The functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1 is that the lateral movement of the spinous process is usually restricted by its articulation with the dorsal arch of the vertebra below it. Without it, the atlas is free to rotate (c). The spinous process provides points of attachment for ligaments and spinal muscles. Yet, the atlas does not have a body due to the fact that its body has fused with that of the next vertebra. Therefore, the atlas supports the globe of the head and is specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. It allows one to nod his/her head to indicate “yes” for example.
Question 39:
Dermal papillae are numerous and form relatively high peaks in the palmar and plantar skin, but are more rare in the skin of the face and abdomen. Which of the following is an appropriate interpretation of this difference (check the 2 best answers)?
Dermal papillae form relatively high peaks in the palmar and planter skin when compared to the skin of the face and abdomen due to several reasons. The soles and palms are likely to be under shearing stress, so there is a great need to prevent slippage of the epidermis (a). The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. There are also delicate furrows that divide the skin into tiny rectangular to rhomboid areas on hands and wrists that the dermal papillae is responsible of. In highly sensitive areas lips and genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface. Therefore, it is important to have the papillae close to the surface to allow for a dense covering of body hair on these structures (d).
KANT Scholarship ESSAY!
An action that truly displays moral worth is one done solely from duty. This
action done from duty must also be one motivated in the right way and one that displays the good will. This action that displays moral worth is one done with respect for the moral law, and is done in the absence of any inclination. To further understand this claim, we must first investigate the definition of the good will. Philosopher Immanuel Kant believes that the good will is the only intrinsically good thing in our world. He argues that things like “courage, heroism, and resolve” can be used wrongly; and we know that happiness can’t be the foundation of morality as it is only good if it is gotten in a moral way. An example happiness being reach in an immoral way is a terrorist getting pleasure by murdering civilians. While this act may have produced to most happiness for the person, his happiness surely could not have been legitimate, as murdering someone is immoral. The “will” itself, is the ability of a person to make their own plans and decisions, and set their ends. A straightforward example of this is someone making the statement that, “I am going to be an engineer.” What makes this will “good” is not the end that it achieves but rather the intention, or motivation of the person using it. We can further state that a morally good intention is one in respect to duty alone, not one that might satisfy any desire. Kant exposes the good will and an example of an action that deserves moral praise through the investigation of a series of different situations.
In the series of situations set forth by Kant, we are dealing with a shopkeeper
selling candy to a young child. In the first situation, the shopkeeper overcharges the young lad, acting completely contrary to his duty. His actions neither comply with what is required of him nor display the good will. The second scenario presents the case in which the shopkeeper charges the boy the set price, but only because of some irrational self-interest. According to Kant, this action does not deserve moral praise because while the shopkeeper did perform the morally right action, he had immoral motives leading him to act in such a manner. In the third scenario, the shopkeeper is in an extra happy mood, and knows that acting out of good nature will only increase is own pleasure, so he charges the boy the set price. Although this shopkeeper’s actions did conform to duty, his personal inclinations led him to act in the manner that he did; giving us reason to state that his actions are of no moral worth. In the final scenario, the shopkeeper is in the most terrible of moods, as the jovial boy’s bounce in his step brings genuine pain to the shopkeeper. As the boy puts the money on the counter, the shopkeeper puts all inclinations aside and lets his good will shine by charging the child the set price. In this situation, we can see the good will in action, as the man was able to do the right thing
because it was the right thing to do, all hindrances aside. This, Kant would say, is an action done from duty.
This idea of acting from duty versus acting in conformity with duty is one that
Kant believes plays a pivotal role in whether or not an action is morally praiseworthy. According to Kant, an action done in accordance with duty is one in agreement with the requirements of duty, but not necessarily motivated in the right way. While this action may present itself as the morally good thing to do, it may still be done for the morally wrong reasons. An example of someone acting in accordance with duty but not from duty is a parent enrolling their child into school because he/she does not want other parents questioning his/her parenting practices. In this instance, while the parent is doing the right thing by giving their child the chance to an education, their action is backed by selfish motives. Kant claims that had the parents merely enrolled their kids because it was the right thing to do, their actions would have had some sort of moral worth.
An action done from duty is one that not only conforms to what duty requires of them, but is also motivated in the right sort of way. Kant suggests that an action done from duty not only merits “approval,” but “esteem,” as the person is using his resources to be beneficial but is not influenced by any inclinations. One example of one acting from duty is a completely distressed mother getting up at three in the morning to tend to her crying child. Recognizing the fact that the exhausted mother could have just as easily kept sleeping, she gets up nevertheless because she knows that her taking care of the child is the right thing to do. Another example of someone acting from duty is an exhausted husband taking his wife to the hospital after she goes into labor in the late hours of the night. Having just worked construction for twelve hours that day, the man is extremely tired and definitely not thrilled about getting up, but he nevertheless gets dressed and rushes his wife to the hospital as it is the right thing to do. Acting on no inclination, but rather out of respect for the moral law, Kant would say that these actions are actions done from duty.
Kant believes that we only deserve moral praise when we act from duty because
when we act from duty, we are using reason to dictate our actions. Along with using
reason, we are displaying a sense of autonomy in that we are capable of self-governing in moral matters and fully capable of doing the right thing. Upon using this autonomy, we are able to discover the moral law, and in turn act out of respect for it. Kant elaborates on this idea of acting out of respect by stating, “Only that which is connected with my will merely as a ground, never as an effect… can be an object of respect.” (pg. 16) This statement helps to further persuade us that the good will wants to follow moral law because of its respect for it. Kant believes that we can’t simply respect something because we want to, but rather, we must use reason to discover why we respect something. We can conclude that when an action is done in respect for the moral law, it not only displays the good will, but it is also done from duty.
Kant believes that respect for the moral law is completely separate from an
inclination like hunger or lust. He believes that acting on inclination is part of one’s animal instincts in that one acts because of a specific desire or motive. The difference that Kant attempts to expose between this and the respect for the moral law is that when acting in respect for the moral law, one is acting from duty and doesn’t necessarily want to do the action but does it simply because it is the right thing to do. We must also recognize Kant’s definition of acting in respect to something (as previously discussed); taking note that it involves using reason while acting on an inclination is purely psychological. Kant, therefore would disagree with the claim that one’s respect for the moral law is just another inclination.
action done from duty must also be one motivated in the right way and one that displays the good will. This action that displays moral worth is one done with respect for the moral law, and is done in the absence of any inclination. To further understand this claim, we must first investigate the definition of the good will. Philosopher Immanuel Kant believes that the good will is the only intrinsically good thing in our world. He argues that things like “courage, heroism, and resolve” can be used wrongly; and we know that happiness can’t be the foundation of morality as it is only good if it is gotten in a moral way. An example happiness being reach in an immoral way is a terrorist getting pleasure by murdering civilians. While this act may have produced to most happiness for the person, his happiness surely could not have been legitimate, as murdering someone is immoral. The “will” itself, is the ability of a person to make their own plans and decisions, and set their ends. A straightforward example of this is someone making the statement that, “I am going to be an engineer.” What makes this will “good” is not the end that it achieves but rather the intention, or motivation of the person using it. We can further state that a morally good intention is one in respect to duty alone, not one that might satisfy any desire. Kant exposes the good will and an example of an action that deserves moral praise through the investigation of a series of different situations.
In the series of situations set forth by Kant, we are dealing with a shopkeeper
selling candy to a young child. In the first situation, the shopkeeper overcharges the young lad, acting completely contrary to his duty. His actions neither comply with what is required of him nor display the good will. The second scenario presents the case in which the shopkeeper charges the boy the set price, but only because of some irrational self-interest. According to Kant, this action does not deserve moral praise because while the shopkeeper did perform the morally right action, he had immoral motives leading him to act in such a manner. In the third scenario, the shopkeeper is in an extra happy mood, and knows that acting out of good nature will only increase is own pleasure, so he charges the boy the set price. Although this shopkeeper’s actions did conform to duty, his personal inclinations led him to act in the manner that he did; giving us reason to state that his actions are of no moral worth. In the final scenario, the shopkeeper is in the most terrible of moods, as the jovial boy’s bounce in his step brings genuine pain to the shopkeeper. As the boy puts the money on the counter, the shopkeeper puts all inclinations aside and lets his good will shine by charging the child the set price. In this situation, we can see the good will in action, as the man was able to do the right thing
because it was the right thing to do, all hindrances aside. This, Kant would say, is an action done from duty.
This idea of acting from duty versus acting in conformity with duty is one that
Kant believes plays a pivotal role in whether or not an action is morally praiseworthy. According to Kant, an action done in accordance with duty is one in agreement with the requirements of duty, but not necessarily motivated in the right way. While this action may present itself as the morally good thing to do, it may still be done for the morally wrong reasons. An example of someone acting in accordance with duty but not from duty is a parent enrolling their child into school because he/she does not want other parents questioning his/her parenting practices. In this instance, while the parent is doing the right thing by giving their child the chance to an education, their action is backed by selfish motives. Kant claims that had the parents merely enrolled their kids because it was the right thing to do, their actions would have had some sort of moral worth.
An action done from duty is one that not only conforms to what duty requires of them, but is also motivated in the right sort of way. Kant suggests that an action done from duty not only merits “approval,” but “esteem,” as the person is using his resources to be beneficial but is not influenced by any inclinations. One example of one acting from duty is a completely distressed mother getting up at three in the morning to tend to her crying child. Recognizing the fact that the exhausted mother could have just as easily kept sleeping, she gets up nevertheless because she knows that her taking care of the child is the right thing to do. Another example of someone acting from duty is an exhausted husband taking his wife to the hospital after she goes into labor in the late hours of the night. Having just worked construction for twelve hours that day, the man is extremely tired and definitely not thrilled about getting up, but he nevertheless gets dressed and rushes his wife to the hospital as it is the right thing to do. Acting on no inclination, but rather out of respect for the moral law, Kant would say that these actions are actions done from duty.
Kant believes that we only deserve moral praise when we act from duty because
when we act from duty, we are using reason to dictate our actions. Along with using
reason, we are displaying a sense of autonomy in that we are capable of self-governing in moral matters and fully capable of doing the right thing. Upon using this autonomy, we are able to discover the moral law, and in turn act out of respect for it. Kant elaborates on this idea of acting out of respect by stating, “Only that which is connected with my will merely as a ground, never as an effect… can be an object of respect.” (pg. 16) This statement helps to further persuade us that the good will wants to follow moral law because of its respect for it. Kant believes that we can’t simply respect something because we want to, but rather, we must use reason to discover why we respect something. We can conclude that when an action is done in respect for the moral law, it not only displays the good will, but it is also done from duty.
Kant believes that respect for the moral law is completely separate from an
inclination like hunger or lust. He believes that acting on inclination is part of one’s animal instincts in that one acts because of a specific desire or motive. The difference that Kant attempts to expose between this and the respect for the moral law is that when acting in respect for the moral law, one is acting from duty and doesn’t necessarily want to do the action but does it simply because it is the right thing to do. We must also recognize Kant’s definition of acting in respect to something (as previously discussed); taking note that it involves using reason while acting on an inclination is purely psychological. Kant, therefore would disagree with the claim that one’s respect for the moral law is just another inclination.
Analysis of Alum KAl (SO4) 2 . 12H2O
Analysis of Alum KAl (SO4)2 . 12H2O
Laayla Muhammad
10/31/06 -11/01/06
Purpose: To do several tests to determine if the resulting crystals are really alum, to use a Thiele melting point tube to determine the melting point of synthesized sample of alum and to determine the amount of water in a synthesized sample of alum and also the percent sulfate in a synthesized sample of alum.
Procedure/Method: First I have to find the melting point of alum and to do that, I have to pulverize the small amount (0.5g) of dry alum. Then I’ll pack the alum in a capillary tube (1 cm) and cut a 1mm length of rubber tubing and fasten the capillary tube to a thermometer. Then I’ll fasten that to a ring stand. Next step is to immerse bottom of capillary and thermometer in a beaker of H2O and heat. I will have to remember to heat slowly as closer to the melting point to get an accurate value. Then I’ll record the temperature at which my alum crystals melt. I will compare the experimental & published values. Next I have to determine the amount of water of hydration in alum crystals. Then I’ll find the mass of crucible with the cover on a sensitive balance. I will add two grams of alum crystals to the crucible and then find the mass of crucible, the cover, and the crystal alums. I will heat and the alum crystals will melt and water of hydration will vaporize. After heating it for 5 minutes, I will cool and find the mass of crucible, cover, and anhydrous alum. I will calculate the mass driven off. Next step is to find the moles of anhydrous KAl (SO4)2 and the moles of H2O. Then I will calculate the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2 and give the calculate formula of alum, KAl (SO4)2 * X H2O, where X = the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2. I will compare the values with that of alum. Then I will determine the percent sulfate in alum by doing the following. I will use suction to pull distilled water through filter pad and dry it in oven. I will determine mass by a sensitive balance and measure the mass of filter paper. I will weigh 1 gram of alum into a 250 mL beaker and dissolve 50 mL of distilled water. Calculate volume of 0.2M Ba(NO3)2 and add twice this volume of Ba(NO3)2, stirring. I will heat and cool it over night. I will filter precipitate and use rubber policeman so that every particle is transferred from beaker into crucible. I will wash beaker and precipitate several times with small quantities of water and transfer filter crucible to beaker and dry in oven (at 500C so it doesn’t char). I will let it cool and mass it. That is how I will calculate the percent sulfate in alum and compare it to the value of its formula.
Data:
Melting Point (temperature in degrees Celsius) of alum crystals:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
90.0
90.1
90.3
90.13
The published data value for alum crystals melting point is 92.5 meaning our melting point was about 2.37 degrees Celsius off.
Massed Objects Mass (g)
Massed out crystals 2 grams
Crucible + Cover 30.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Alum Crystals 32.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Anhydrous Alum 31.1591 g
Calculated Anhydrous Alum .9514 g
Calculated Water driven off 1.0486 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper 15.8050 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper + Dried Precipitate 16.0230 g
Calculated Dried Precipitate .218 g
Calculations:
Calculations made to find out the amount of Ba(NO3)2 needed to totally precipitate all of the sulfate ion present in the solution plus twice this volume:
1 gram alum X 1 mol alum X 1 mol SO42- X 1 mol Ba2+ X 1 mol Ba(NO3)2
474.4 g alum 1 mol alum 2 mol SO42- 1 mol Ba2+
X 5 L Ba(NO3)2 = About 21 mL ( multiplied by 2) = 42 mL needed
1 mol Ba2+
(Other Calculations)
32.1105-30.1105 = 2 grams of crystals
32.1105-31.1591 = .9514 anhydrous alum
2.000-.9514=1.0486 grams of hydrated H2O
.9514g anhydrous alum X 1 mol anhydrous alum = .003628 mol anhydrous alum
262.22 g anhydrous alum
1.0486g hydrated H2O X 1 mol H2O = .05825 mol H2O
18g H2O
.05828 mol H2O = 16.056 mol (About 16) = X
.003628 mol anhydrous alum
KAl(SO4)2 * 16 H2O
1.0145g BaSO4 X 1 mol of BaSO4 X 2 mol SO4 X 96.066 g SO4 = .4176 g SO4
233.393g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4 2 mol SO4
100 X .4176g SO4 = 41.2% SO4 present in the alum
1.0145g alum
Questions/Answers:
1. Objects must be cooled before their mass is found on a sensitive balance because their accurate mass when still warm could alter the result in finding out the actual mass of the object. This could be due to the fact that when heated, objects have more energy so they weigh more and have a higher mass than the cold objects.
2. The different tests used to verify that the substance tested was alum was the melting point at which we knew that the crystal alum would melt at 92.5 degrees Celsius.
3. Other tests could be made to verify the compositions of alum. For example, we can use the percentage of the sulfate in the alum and use it to find its mole ratio and figure out how much water is in the synthesized alum.
Conclusions: To conclude, the precipitate that came out in as a result were alum crystals according to many tests we took. For example, its melting point was average 90.13 and we know that alum crystals published melting point is 92.5. We figured out by calculation that there needs to be total of 42 mL of Ba(NO3)2 to filter the precipitate completely. There is about 16 mol of H2O, as calculated, in the synthesized alum. After calculating, we also figured out that there was about 41.2 percent of sulfate in the synthesized alum.
Experimental Sources of Error: There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. While figuring out the melting point for the alum crystals, I could have not analyzed when the alum crystals started melting exactly, leading me to maybe assume it was the first temperature that my eyes noticed. Another error could have been made while massing out the crucible, the cover, or the anhydrous alum, which would throw off my calculations when figuring out the mol to mol ratio of the given formulas. I could have also made an error filtering the precipitate Ba(NO3)2, in a way where not all the precipitate was filtered thoroughly from the beaker to the gooch crucible. Such imprecise and maybe even inaccurate measurements could be responsible for altering the following results for figuring out the exact percentage of sulfate in the alum.
Laayla Muhammad
10/31/06 -11/01/06
Purpose: To do several tests to determine if the resulting crystals are really alum, to use a Thiele melting point tube to determine the melting point of synthesized sample of alum and to determine the amount of water in a synthesized sample of alum and also the percent sulfate in a synthesized sample of alum.
Procedure/Method: First I have to find the melting point of alum and to do that, I have to pulverize the small amount (0.5g) of dry alum. Then I’ll pack the alum in a capillary tube (1 cm) and cut a 1mm length of rubber tubing and fasten the capillary tube to a thermometer. Then I’ll fasten that to a ring stand. Next step is to immerse bottom of capillary and thermometer in a beaker of H2O and heat. I will have to remember to heat slowly as closer to the melting point to get an accurate value. Then I’ll record the temperature at which my alum crystals melt. I will compare the experimental & published values. Next I have to determine the amount of water of hydration in alum crystals. Then I’ll find the mass of crucible with the cover on a sensitive balance. I will add two grams of alum crystals to the crucible and then find the mass of crucible, the cover, and the crystal alums. I will heat and the alum crystals will melt and water of hydration will vaporize. After heating it for 5 minutes, I will cool and find the mass of crucible, cover, and anhydrous alum. I will calculate the mass driven off. Next step is to find the moles of anhydrous KAl (SO4)2 and the moles of H2O. Then I will calculate the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2 and give the calculate formula of alum, KAl (SO4)2 * X H2O, where X = the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2. I will compare the values with that of alum. Then I will determine the percent sulfate in alum by doing the following. I will use suction to pull distilled water through filter pad and dry it in oven. I will determine mass by a sensitive balance and measure the mass of filter paper. I will weigh 1 gram of alum into a 250 mL beaker and dissolve 50 mL of distilled water. Calculate volume of 0.2M Ba(NO3)2 and add twice this volume of Ba(NO3)2, stirring. I will heat and cool it over night. I will filter precipitate and use rubber policeman so that every particle is transferred from beaker into crucible. I will wash beaker and precipitate several times with small quantities of water and transfer filter crucible to beaker and dry in oven (at 500C so it doesn’t char). I will let it cool and mass it. That is how I will calculate the percent sulfate in alum and compare it to the value of its formula.
Data:
Melting Point (temperature in degrees Celsius) of alum crystals:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
90.0
90.1
90.3
90.13
The published data value for alum crystals melting point is 92.5 meaning our melting point was about 2.37 degrees Celsius off.
Massed Objects Mass (g)
Massed out crystals 2 grams
Crucible + Cover 30.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Alum Crystals 32.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Anhydrous Alum 31.1591 g
Calculated Anhydrous Alum .9514 g
Calculated Water driven off 1.0486 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper 15.8050 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper + Dried Precipitate 16.0230 g
Calculated Dried Precipitate .218 g
Calculations:
Calculations made to find out the amount of Ba(NO3)2 needed to totally precipitate all of the sulfate ion present in the solution plus twice this volume:
1 gram alum X 1 mol alum X 1 mol SO42- X 1 mol Ba2+ X 1 mol Ba(NO3)2
474.4 g alum 1 mol alum 2 mol SO42- 1 mol Ba2+
X 5 L Ba(NO3)2 = About 21 mL ( multiplied by 2) = 42 mL needed
1 mol Ba2+
(Other Calculations)
32.1105-30.1105 = 2 grams of crystals
32.1105-31.1591 = .9514 anhydrous alum
2.000-.9514=1.0486 grams of hydrated H2O
.9514g anhydrous alum X 1 mol anhydrous alum = .003628 mol anhydrous alum
262.22 g anhydrous alum
1.0486g hydrated H2O X 1 mol H2O = .05825 mol H2O
18g H2O
.05828 mol H2O = 16.056 mol (About 16) = X
.003628 mol anhydrous alum
KAl(SO4)2 * 16 H2O
1.0145g BaSO4 X 1 mol of BaSO4 X 2 mol SO4 X 96.066 g SO4 = .4176 g SO4
233.393g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4 2 mol SO4
100 X .4176g SO4 = 41.2% SO4 present in the alum
1.0145g alum
Questions/Answers:
1. Objects must be cooled before their mass is found on a sensitive balance because their accurate mass when still warm could alter the result in finding out the actual mass of the object. This could be due to the fact that when heated, objects have more energy so they weigh more and have a higher mass than the cold objects.
2. The different tests used to verify that the substance tested was alum was the melting point at which we knew that the crystal alum would melt at 92.5 degrees Celsius.
3. Other tests could be made to verify the compositions of alum. For example, we can use the percentage of the sulfate in the alum and use it to find its mole ratio and figure out how much water is in the synthesized alum.
Conclusions: To conclude, the precipitate that came out in as a result were alum crystals according to many tests we took. For example, its melting point was average 90.13 and we know that alum crystals published melting point is 92.5. We figured out by calculation that there needs to be total of 42 mL of Ba(NO3)2 to filter the precipitate completely. There is about 16 mol of H2O, as calculated, in the synthesized alum. After calculating, we also figured out that there was about 41.2 percent of sulfate in the synthesized alum.
Experimental Sources of Error: There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. While figuring out the melting point for the alum crystals, I could have not analyzed when the alum crystals started melting exactly, leading me to maybe assume it was the first temperature that my eyes noticed. Another error could have been made while massing out the crucible, the cover, or the anhydrous alum, which would throw off my calculations when figuring out the mol to mol ratio of the given formulas. I could have also made an error filtering the precipitate Ba(NO3)2, in a way where not all the precipitate was filtered thoroughly from the beaker to the gooch crucible. Such imprecise and maybe even inaccurate measurements could be responsible for altering the following results for figuring out the exact percentage of sulfate in the alum.
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Sleep.
Your Sleep Test Results
You show symptoms of sleep apnea, a potentially serious sleep disorder. People with sleep apnea quit breathing repeatedly, often hundreds of times during their nights sleep.
You show symptoms of insomnia, which is defined as a persistent inability to fall asleep or stay asleep.
You show symptoms of narcolepsy, a life-long disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks during normal waking hours.
You show symptoms of periodic limb movement disorder, a disorder resulting in uncontrollable leg or arm movements during sleep
You show symptoms of sleep apnea, a potentially serious sleep disorder. People with sleep apnea quit breathing repeatedly, often hundreds of times during their nights sleep.
You show symptoms of insomnia, which is defined as a persistent inability to fall asleep or stay asleep.
You show symptoms of narcolepsy, a life-long disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks during normal waking hours.
You show symptoms of periodic limb movement disorder, a disorder resulting in uncontrollable leg or arm movements during sleep
Monday, February 16, 2009
Soulmate.
| Have you found your soulmate? |
Soulmates for life  |
| Quizzes, myspace surveys, Love Quizzes, Relationship Quizzes, About Me Quizzes , Fun Quizzes, by quizcat.com |
What love is.
I'm pretty conceited. I am. Really. Actually... anyone who owns a blog is as well. They want to rant, complain, let others be aware.... etc... they're the source right? Its their blog people are looking at. It's them they are acknowledging.
And as a conceited person, if I'm admitting that there is someone else who truly loves and cares about me, then that should count for something right? So there, I've finally discovered it.
Love is when the most conceited person feels challenged... and fails.
And as a conceited person, if I'm admitting that there is someone else who truly loves and cares about me, then that should count for something right? So there, I've finally discovered it.
Love is when the most conceited person feels challenged... and fails.
Friday, January 23, 2009
Thursday, January 01, 2009
Divorces as justifications.
Divorces. They are evil. Evil...evil things. They break up a marriage. No. They don't break up a marriage. They justify the break ups. Divorces make a bad marriage seem normal. You know what they truly break up? Unity. As soon as the term comes up, it's all division.... like it's a 4th grade math class. Children use the term to justify their bad habits. Divorce is justified through people, and it justifies the evil things people do in order to find "full contentment." There is no balance. Even if the other parent is still there, it's still not right. It feels out of place. It feels... so not normal. Divorce is seen as normal though. Splitting up. Giving it a time out. Things didn't work out. It wasn't meant to be. It ended up in the wrong path. It was too much to handle. It wasn't the right time. BLAH BLAH BLAH BLAH BLAH. Reasons. Consequences. I don't care.
All I know is that the divorce rate in the U.S. is over 55%.... OVER... trust me... way over. That's terrible. And so people don't even bother getting married anymore. See what you did Mr. Divorce? You put fear in people. You threatened to enter and you made them step away and get cold feet...forever.
I hate you divorce. I hate you evil people who can't seem to work a marriage. I hate evil people... who put their so called loved ones in so much trouble that they have to resort to a divorce in order to save a family. But the family? It's ruined before divorce even enters. It's destroyed the second the evil one decides to ruin the family from his/her evil actions.
All I know is that the divorce rate in the U.S. is over 55%.... OVER... trust me... way over. That's terrible. And so people don't even bother getting married anymore. See what you did Mr. Divorce? You put fear in people. You threatened to enter and you made them step away and get cold feet...forever.
I hate you divorce. I hate you evil people who can't seem to work a marriage. I hate evil people... who put their so called loved ones in so much trouble that they have to resort to a divorce in order to save a family. But the family? It's ruined before divorce even enters. It's destroyed the second the evil one decides to ruin the family from his/her evil actions.
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