Burns Laayla Muhammad
October 17, 2007
Lecture section 401
There are too many individuals who suffer from burning accidents and are ignorant in knowing how these burns can become severe and change their lives completely. One thing I learned about anatomy and physiology is that there are three types of burns, which are categorized according to their depth of tissue involvement. All three types vary not only in their causes, but also the damage they have towards one’s skin and body. Burns can be hardly severe as getting sunburned and can become as extreme as one losing his life. Deaths resulting from burns are caused by infection, fluid loss, or toxic effects of burned dead tissue known as eschar. Burns can also lead to difficulty in breathing, which can also lead to death eventually.
One of the three types of burns is first-degree burns, also known as superficial burns. This type of burn only involves the epidermis, which is the top layer of the skin. The skin usually gets red and dry and really painful. Some swelling may also take place. An example of a first degree burn would be sunburn. Within a week, this burn begins to disappear and usually never leaves a scar.
Another type of burn is known as a second-degree burn, which is also known as a partial-thickness burn. This type of burn involves the epidermis and also part of the dermis, which is a skin layer underneath the epidermis. A second-degree burn may be red, tan, or even white and tends to be blistered up, causing great amounts of pain. The wound seems to open up and weep clear fluid, which makes the skin appear wet. . It takes a little bit longer to heal, which can be from 2 weeks to several months. This type of burn usually leaves a scar behind. At this point, the epidermis actually revives once the epithelial cells in the hair follicle and sweat glands divide. Someone may experience this type of burn from certain sunburns and many scalds, such as hot tap water or hot oil spills.
Unlike first and second-degree burns, third degree burns are much more intense and damaging. This type of burn, known as full-thickness burn, destroys the epidermis, dermis, and often most deeper tissues. It damages basically all of the layers along with any or all of the underlying structures such as fat, muscle, bones and nerves. If this burn hits the nerves then it becomes really painless, but otherwise this type of burn is extremely painful. It leaves a brown or black charred mark and the tissues underneath seem white. Third-degree burns produce hard, leather-like eschars and sometimes have purple fluid. Unlike the other types of burn, the skin will not regenerate on its own. If one is involved in this type of accident, s/he needs medical attention immediately. In order to heal, skin grafts are required because if left to heal on its own, contracture and severe disfigurement may take place.
Burns are caused through many different ways, such as heat, cold, electricity, friction, and radiation. Between the three types of burns, third-degrees burns are the most painful unless they hit nerves, making the process very painless. At each level, damaging effects and healing time varies due to the certain damages done to the layers of the skin. I have been involved in many burning incidents where I have gotten numerous first and second-degree burns. Most individuals are able to take care of themselves in these cases, where the skin eventually regenerates and heals on its own. Third-degree burns require immediate care and can lead to one’s death as well.
Random Rambling Rants
- Laayla
- Houston, Texas, United States
- I'm Laayla. I ramble. I rant. I question. I complain... and sometimes I happen to enlighten.
Wednesday, March 18, 2009
Electrochemcial Cells
Electrochemical Cells
Laayla Muhammad
Partners: Arlee Vang, Lee Her
March 21, 2007
Purpose: To construct a series of microscale electrochemical half-cells and use the Nernst equation to experimentally determine the voltage of a Zn/Cu cell, the Ksp of AgCl, and the Kf of Cu(NH3)42+. We will basically be constructing a table of relative electrode potentials and be changing the concentration of one of the solutions to see the affects. Then we’d use the electrical potential of a cell containing Ag and AgCl along with the Nernst equation to determine the solubility product of AgCl. Finally, creating Cu (NH3)42+, the potential and the Nernst equation can be used to calculate the formation constant of the tetramminecopper (II) complex ion using microscale techniques.
Procedure:
Determining the Reduction Potentials:
First, a test cell needs to be prepared to measure the voltage of the copper and zinc half cells by putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Zn(NO3)2 solution in one of the center wells and putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 in an adjacent one. Then taking a small strip of filter paper, soaked in KNO3 solution, and draping it across the two wells, as a salt bridge. Then we polished strips of Zn and Cu metal and placed them in appropriate well containing the solutions of the ions. Then using a voltmeter, the potential difference between the two half-cells was measured, making sure the reading was positive. We made sure to note which electrode played the role of an anode and a cathode. The electrode connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while oxidation occurred at the electrode connected to the negative terminal, which was the anode. Next step was to prepare half cells in other wells by pouring some 1.0 M solution of the following ions in different wells and polishing the metals with sandpaper or steel wood so they’re shiny and inserting them into the well containing the ion of same metals (fresh trips of filter paper soaked in 1.0 M potassium nitrate were used as salt bridges): Ag|Ag+, Cu|Cu2+, Fe|Fe3+, Mg|Mg2+, Pb|Pb2+, and Zn|Zn2+. We recorded the data using a table to help organize our findings.
Reduction Equation for each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Then we composed reduction equations for each metal ion and arranged the equations in decreasing order of measured potential in an “Eo” type of table. We recorded the standard potentials using the hydrogen electrode as standard, and calculated the difference between two values using another data table to stay organized.
Measure Cell Potentials:
Next we measured the potential difference between at least 4 combinations of various electrodes and used the table of electrode potentials to predict the voltage and which half cell will be the anode and cathode. Next step involves comparing predicted and measured potentials and using a table to record the data.
Changing Ion Concentration:
We diluted 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 by adding 2 drops of the solution into 18 drops of deionized water in a small test tube. We mixed well and did this two times more to decrease the concentration to 0.0010 M. Then we poured some of this solution in one of the wells and added a polished copper wire to measure the voltage against the standard zinc electrode. We recorded the data and next step includes writing a net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and using the Nernst equation to calculate the expected voltage to be compared to the measured one.
Finding the Solubility:
We poured 10 mL of 1.0 M NaCl solution into a beaker and added 1.0 M AgNO3 and stirred. Then we poured some of the solution into one of the wells and added an Ag metal electrode and measured the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell. Next step involves writing out the net ionic equation for the reaction and using Nernst equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion and the value of the solubility of AgCl, to compare the calculated value with the measured.
Finding the Formation Constant of Cu(NH3)4:
We found the volume of one drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution by counting the number of drops in 1 mL, which was 17 drops for us. Then we put 10 mL of 6.0 M NH3 in a beaker and added 1 drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution. Then we poured some of the solution in one of the wells and added a Cu metal electrode to measure the potential difference vs. the Zn electrode, to write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell. The Cu(NH3)4 concentration is calculated by assuming that all of the Cu2+ in solution is present as the complex ion. The uncomplexed Cu2+ concentration is calculated from the cell potential using the Nernst equation. Last step includes finding the formation constant, the equilibrium constant for the equation and comparing the calculated value from the measured.
Data:
Determining Reduction Potentials
Voltage of each half-cell versus the zinc electrode:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Zn vs. Cu .801 Cu Zn
Zn vs. Fe .396 Fe Zn
Zn vs. Mg -.625 Zn Mg
Zn vs. Pb .391 Pb Zn
Zn vs. Zn 0.00 (assumed)
Reduction Equations for Each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
Cu2+ + 2e- --> Cu 0.801 0.340 0.461
Fe3+ + 3e- --> Fe 0.396 0.770 -0.374
Pb2+ + 2e- --> Pb 0.391 -0.013 0.404
Zn2+ +2e- --> Zn 0.000 -0.760 0.760
Mg2+ + 2e- --> Mg -0.625 -2.370 1.745
Measure Cell Potential:
Anode Cathode Equation for the cell reaction Predicted Potential from Experimental Data Measured Potential
Fe Mg Fe3+ + Mg --> Fe + Mg2+ 1.021 1.157
Ag Fe Fe3+ Ag --> Fe + Ag+ 1.627 0.879
Ag Pb Pb2+ + Ag --> Pb + Ag+ 1.622 0.918
Cu Mg Cu2+ Mg --> Cu + Mg2+ 1.426 1.588
Calculations:
In the first part, where we were determining the reduction potentials, we used the voltmeter to measure the potential difference between the two half cells. When the voltmeter reads a positive voltage, the black electrode, connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while the red electrode connected to the negative terminal, is the anode. Then we composed the reduction equations based on that. We assumed Zn|Zn2+ had the potential of 0.00 volts.
Example:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Then we recorded the standard potential using the hydrogren electrode as standard. We were then able to calculate the difference between the two values.
Example:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
The next part consisted of measuring cell potentials using at least 4 combinations of the various electrodes. We used the electrode potentials from the first table to predict the voltage and determine the reducing and oxidizing agents so both values can be compared.
Example:
Reduction: 2(Fe3+ + 3e- Fe) E cell: .396 V
Oxidation: (Mg Mg2+ + 2e-) E cell: .625 V
2Fe3+ + Mg Fe + Mg2+ E cell: 1.021 V
Changing the concentration of the Ion:
2 drops of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 diluted in 18 drops of dionized water provided us with 0.10 M concentration. We did it two more times to give us the final concentration of 0.0010 M. So the concentration went from 1.0 M to 0.10 M, then 0.010 M, and finally 0.0010 M.
We had to write an ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and then use the Nernst equation to calculate what the expected voltage should be, and compare to the measured value.
Reducing: Cu2++2 e- Cu(s)
Oxidizing: Zn(s) Zn2++2 e-
Equation: Cu2++Zn(s) Zn2++ Cu(s)
Trial 1: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .220
Trial 2: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .224
Average: .220 + .224 = .232 V
2
Ecell = Eo cell – RT In Q
nF
= Eo cell – 0.0592 log Q
n
Finding Solubility Product of AgCl:
In this step, almost all of the silver ions combined with chloride ions to precipitate AgCl. Since there is a large excess of Cl-, it can be assumed that the concentration of Cl- is still 1.0 M. The concentration of the silver ions will be really small (reduced). After measuring the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell, we had to write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in the well. Then we have to compare the two values with each other.
Reduction: 2 Ag2++2e- 2AgCu(s)
Oxidation: Zn(s) Zn2++ 2e-
Balanced: 2Ag2++Zn(s) Zn2++ 2Ag(s)
Next step involves using the Nernst Equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion. Therefore, we’d then calculate the solubility product of AgCl and compare the two values with each other.
2 Ag+ + Zn 2Ag + Zn2+ E cell:
Laayla Muhammad
Partners: Arlee Vang, Lee Her
March 21, 2007
Purpose: To construct a series of microscale electrochemical half-cells and use the Nernst equation to experimentally determine the voltage of a Zn/Cu cell, the Ksp of AgCl, and the Kf of Cu(NH3)42+. We will basically be constructing a table of relative electrode potentials and be changing the concentration of one of the solutions to see the affects. Then we’d use the electrical potential of a cell containing Ag and AgCl along with the Nernst equation to determine the solubility product of AgCl. Finally, creating Cu (NH3)42+, the potential and the Nernst equation can be used to calculate the formation constant of the tetramminecopper (II) complex ion using microscale techniques.
Procedure:
Determining the Reduction Potentials:
First, a test cell needs to be prepared to measure the voltage of the copper and zinc half cells by putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Zn(NO3)2 solution in one of the center wells and putting 2 mL of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 in an adjacent one. Then taking a small strip of filter paper, soaked in KNO3 solution, and draping it across the two wells, as a salt bridge. Then we polished strips of Zn and Cu metal and placed them in appropriate well containing the solutions of the ions. Then using a voltmeter, the potential difference between the two half-cells was measured, making sure the reading was positive. We made sure to note which electrode played the role of an anode and a cathode. The electrode connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while oxidation occurred at the electrode connected to the negative terminal, which was the anode. Next step was to prepare half cells in other wells by pouring some 1.0 M solution of the following ions in different wells and polishing the metals with sandpaper or steel wood so they’re shiny and inserting them into the well containing the ion of same metals (fresh trips of filter paper soaked in 1.0 M potassium nitrate were used as salt bridges): Ag|Ag+, Cu|Cu2+, Fe|Fe3+, Mg|Mg2+, Pb|Pb2+, and Zn|Zn2+. We recorded the data using a table to help organize our findings.
Reduction Equation for each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Then we composed reduction equations for each metal ion and arranged the equations in decreasing order of measured potential in an “Eo” type of table. We recorded the standard potentials using the hydrogen electrode as standard, and calculated the difference between two values using another data table to stay organized.
Measure Cell Potentials:
Next we measured the potential difference between at least 4 combinations of various electrodes and used the table of electrode potentials to predict the voltage and which half cell will be the anode and cathode. Next step involves comparing predicted and measured potentials and using a table to record the data.
Changing Ion Concentration:
We diluted 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 by adding 2 drops of the solution into 18 drops of deionized water in a small test tube. We mixed well and did this two times more to decrease the concentration to 0.0010 M. Then we poured some of this solution in one of the wells and added a polished copper wire to measure the voltage against the standard zinc electrode. We recorded the data and next step includes writing a net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and using the Nernst equation to calculate the expected voltage to be compared to the measured one.
Finding the Solubility:
We poured 10 mL of 1.0 M NaCl solution into a beaker and added 1.0 M AgNO3 and stirred. Then we poured some of the solution into one of the wells and added an Ag metal electrode and measured the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell. Next step involves writing out the net ionic equation for the reaction and using Nernst equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion and the value of the solubility of AgCl, to compare the calculated value with the measured.
Finding the Formation Constant of Cu(NH3)4:
We found the volume of one drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution by counting the number of drops in 1 mL, which was 17 drops for us. Then we put 10 mL of 6.0 M NH3 in a beaker and added 1 drop of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 solution. Then we poured some of the solution in one of the wells and added a Cu metal electrode to measure the potential difference vs. the Zn electrode, to write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell. The Cu(NH3)4 concentration is calculated by assuming that all of the Cu2+ in solution is present as the complex ion. The uncomplexed Cu2+ concentration is calculated from the cell potential using the Nernst equation. Last step includes finding the formation constant, the equilibrium constant for the equation and comparing the calculated value from the measured.
Data:
Determining Reduction Potentials
Voltage of each half-cell versus the zinc electrode:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Zn vs. Cu .801 Cu Zn
Zn vs. Fe .396 Fe Zn
Zn vs. Mg -.625 Zn Mg
Zn vs. Pb .391 Pb Zn
Zn vs. Zn 0.00 (assumed)
Reduction Equations for Each Ion Arranged in Decreasing Order of Potential:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
Cu2+ + 2e- --> Cu 0.801 0.340 0.461
Fe3+ + 3e- --> Fe 0.396 0.770 -0.374
Pb2+ + 2e- --> Pb 0.391 -0.013 0.404
Zn2+ +2e- --> Zn 0.000 -0.760 0.760
Mg2+ + 2e- --> Mg -0.625 -2.370 1.745
Measure Cell Potential:
Anode Cathode Equation for the cell reaction Predicted Potential from Experimental Data Measured Potential
Fe Mg Fe3+ + Mg --> Fe + Mg2+ 1.021 1.157
Ag Fe Fe3+ Ag --> Fe + Ag+ 1.627 0.879
Ag Pb Pb2+ + Ag --> Pb + Ag+ 1.622 0.918
Cu Mg Cu2+ Mg --> Cu + Mg2+ 1.426 1.588
Calculations:
In the first part, where we were determining the reduction potentials, we used the voltmeter to measure the potential difference between the two half cells. When the voltmeter reads a positive voltage, the black electrode, connected to the positive terminal is the cathode and is undergoing reduction, while the red electrode connected to the negative terminal, is the anode. Then we composed the reduction equations based on that. We assumed Zn|Zn2+ had the potential of 0.00 volts.
Example:
Cell Voltage Anode Cathode
Zn vs. Ag 1.231 Ag Zn
Then we recorded the standard potential using the hydrogren electrode as standard. We were then able to calculate the difference between the two values.
Example:
Reduction equation Electrode Potentials using Zn as the standard, Ezn Accepted Electrode Potentials using Hydrogen as Standard, Eo Ezn - Eo
Ag+ + e- --> Ag 1.231 0.800 0.431
The next part consisted of measuring cell potentials using at least 4 combinations of the various electrodes. We used the electrode potentials from the first table to predict the voltage and determine the reducing and oxidizing agents so both values can be compared.
Example:
Reduction: 2(Fe3+ + 3e- Fe) E cell: .396 V
Oxidation: (Mg Mg2+ + 2e-) E cell: .625 V
2Fe3+ + Mg Fe + Mg2+ E cell: 1.021 V
Changing the concentration of the Ion:
2 drops of 1.0 M Cu(NO3)2 diluted in 18 drops of dionized water provided us with 0.10 M concentration. We did it two more times to give us the final concentration of 0.0010 M. So the concentration went from 1.0 M to 0.10 M, then 0.010 M, and finally 0.0010 M.
We had to write an ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the cell and then use the Nernst equation to calculate what the expected voltage should be, and compare to the measured value.
Reducing: Cu2++2 e- Cu(s)
Oxidizing: Zn(s) Zn2++2 e-
Equation: Cu2++Zn(s) Zn2++ Cu(s)
Trial 1: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .220
Trial 2: Cu3+ + Zn Cu + Zn3+ Voltage: .224
Average: .220 + .224 = .232 V
2
Ecell = Eo cell – RT In Q
nF
= Eo cell – 0.0592 log Q
n
Finding Solubility Product of AgCl:
In this step, almost all of the silver ions combined with chloride ions to precipitate AgCl. Since there is a large excess of Cl-, it can be assumed that the concentration of Cl- is still 1.0 M. The concentration of the silver ions will be really small (reduced). After measuring the potential difference versus this half-cell and the zinc half-cell, we had to write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in the well. Then we have to compare the two values with each other.
Reduction: 2 Ag2++2e- 2AgCu(s)
Oxidation: Zn(s) Zn2++ 2e-
Balanced: 2Ag2++Zn(s) Zn2++ 2Ag(s)
Next step involves using the Nernst Equation to calculate the concentration of the Ag+ ion. Therefore, we’d then calculate the solubility product of AgCl and compare the two values with each other.
2 Ag+ + Zn 2Ag + Zn2+ E cell:
Excuses for prayers
They say when you bow down and pray to God, things become clearer. They seem to fall right into their places where you can pick them up, take them with you, and move on. Maybe that’s why I haven’t been able to move on. I haven’t prayed in a while. Things have been keeping me busy… but the fact is, praying is not one of my top priorities. I will rush to do homework, cook, and clean even if it is a burden. Praying will actually benefit me the most, yet I manage to create excuses because I am able to get away from the consequences for now. Even though God is likely to punish me sooner or later, I feel as if it’s not direct and that not doing my homework will hurt me more. The truth is, I’m hurting myself more and more every day by avoiding prayers. It is as if I am digging my own grave, and then complaining about why it has been dug. I have been in misery because I feel as if nothing in this world has the ability to fulfill my thirst for satisfaction. I cannot be content. I am constantly holding pessimistic thoughts because reality is harsh. I cannot imagine coming up with foolish dreams that I know I will not achieve. It has been a burden knowing my weaknesses because there are certain circumstances where I want to forget them and pretend that they do not even exist.
Tu Jahan
Laayla Muhammad
Block 1
May 23, 2007
“Tu Jahan” (wherever you are)
The song “Tu Jahan” by the movie Salaam Namaste can be classified as a Romantic song. Romanticism is the emphasis on the personal emotional and dramatic aspects of historical subject matter. When implying such a concept to this song, it becomes easier to view the details that make it true. This Pakistani Punjabi song is composed of lyrics that show a story about two lovers who are deeply in love with one another. Both individuals are expressing their love for one another in the most maudlin way ever. They are using metaphors and analogies to compare the strength of the love they have for each other. Both lovers take turns expressing their emotions and it becomes clear to the listeners, that due to heavy exaggerations and dramatic comparisons, this song is an example of Romanticism at its peak.
The song starts out with the chorus, which sets the mood of the song instantly. With a dramatic phrase such as, “I will walk alongside you, just like the sky” it shows why one could consider this song to be Romantic. Instead of just stating that he will always be there for her, he compares his presence’s existence to the sky. As the song continues to play, analogies used in the 1st verse exposes the emotional tone it holds. The lover expresses his care by stating that he will protect her from the sun by becoming her shade rather than just stating he will be there for her in need. He emphasizes his presence around her to comfort her, and uses examples such as being her shadow when she is alone and bringing relief to her when she is in distress. Immediately, the girl starts singing with a dramatic tone, explaining how she can finally live now that he is here with her. She compares the joy she feels to a net of happiness and claims that she has either lost herself, or has found everything she’s been seeking. Such a statement reveals the over-sentimental tone of the poem once again.
The 2nd verse of the song begins with the lover showing the sacrifices he can make in order to ensure that the love of his life is in comfort and ease. He states “let the sorrows be cast on me” and “let me tackle with the restlessness” as if he has the ability to handle not only his, but her problems as well. He informs her that if anything hurts her, she can let it “befall” on him. His words seem fancy and make him seem like a heroic Romeo who is ready to rescue his Juliet. With that said; the female lover responses by stating that her heart just wanted someone to claim and she wanted no secrets to exist between the two. She compares what she’s experiencing to a dream and tries not to wake up. Once again, the female is in a utopian environment where she feels content enough to compare it to being in a dream.
Such phrases seem to take the listeners to a fantasy story-line where two lovers are in a world of their own where nothing else matters. The male lover supposedly is some heroic man who can bare any trouble that comes his way and the female lover is in some sort of dream land, strangled in a net of what else, but happiness. It seems pretty obvious to the readers that the two have excessive love for one another. The song reminds listeners about theatrical plays such as “Romeo and Juliet” and “MacBeth” where dramatic aspects of a relationship are emphasized greatly. Unlike Realism, the lovers aren’t focusing on matters that could benefit them in a relationship. Instead, they are talking about the sun, skies, and dreams. The chorus states how wherever one of them is, the other one will be there, which is obviously impossible. Emphasis on the emotional and expressive lyrics of this song categorizes it to fall under Romanticism.
Block 1
May 23, 2007
“Tu Jahan” (wherever you are)
The song “Tu Jahan” by the movie Salaam Namaste can be classified as a Romantic song. Romanticism is the emphasis on the personal emotional and dramatic aspects of historical subject matter. When implying such a concept to this song, it becomes easier to view the details that make it true. This Pakistani Punjabi song is composed of lyrics that show a story about two lovers who are deeply in love with one another. Both individuals are expressing their love for one another in the most maudlin way ever. They are using metaphors and analogies to compare the strength of the love they have for each other. Both lovers take turns expressing their emotions and it becomes clear to the listeners, that due to heavy exaggerations and dramatic comparisons, this song is an example of Romanticism at its peak.
The song starts out with the chorus, which sets the mood of the song instantly. With a dramatic phrase such as, “I will walk alongside you, just like the sky” it shows why one could consider this song to be Romantic. Instead of just stating that he will always be there for her, he compares his presence’s existence to the sky. As the song continues to play, analogies used in the 1st verse exposes the emotional tone it holds. The lover expresses his care by stating that he will protect her from the sun by becoming her shade rather than just stating he will be there for her in need. He emphasizes his presence around her to comfort her, and uses examples such as being her shadow when she is alone and bringing relief to her when she is in distress. Immediately, the girl starts singing with a dramatic tone, explaining how she can finally live now that he is here with her. She compares the joy she feels to a net of happiness and claims that she has either lost herself, or has found everything she’s been seeking. Such a statement reveals the over-sentimental tone of the poem once again.
The 2nd verse of the song begins with the lover showing the sacrifices he can make in order to ensure that the love of his life is in comfort and ease. He states “let the sorrows be cast on me” and “let me tackle with the restlessness” as if he has the ability to handle not only his, but her problems as well. He informs her that if anything hurts her, she can let it “befall” on him. His words seem fancy and make him seem like a heroic Romeo who is ready to rescue his Juliet. With that said; the female lover responses by stating that her heart just wanted someone to claim and she wanted no secrets to exist between the two. She compares what she’s experiencing to a dream and tries not to wake up. Once again, the female is in a utopian environment where she feels content enough to compare it to being in a dream.
Such phrases seem to take the listeners to a fantasy story-line where two lovers are in a world of their own where nothing else matters. The male lover supposedly is some heroic man who can bare any trouble that comes his way and the female lover is in some sort of dream land, strangled in a net of what else, but happiness. It seems pretty obvious to the readers that the two have excessive love for one another. The song reminds listeners about theatrical plays such as “Romeo and Juliet” and “MacBeth” where dramatic aspects of a relationship are emphasized greatly. Unlike Realism, the lovers aren’t focusing on matters that could benefit them in a relationship. Instead, they are talking about the sun, skies, and dreams. The chorus states how wherever one of them is, the other one will be there, which is obviously impossible. Emphasis on the emotional and expressive lyrics of this song categorizes it to fall under Romanticism.
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
Laayla Muhammad
Ethics – Philo 241
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
The morally right action to take in everyday life experiences can be determined using various methods such as Utilitarian and Kantian analysis. Each of these methods help one arrive at a predicament in how to act accordingly to given situations. In this case, Tip and Top, both detectives, are dealing with a situation where they are thinking of acting a certain way but aren’t sure if it will provide the most utility at the end. They wish to get Zip, a dangerous criminal off the street; because they are convinced he is guilty. The only problem is that if they follow the legal rules they are to follow and provide Zip with a lawyer, they will not get a conviction out of him and therefore, will lose the case. Zip will be back on the street and will be selling drugs to children once again. Coercing a confession seems like a right decision, but also a wrong thing to do. Using Utilitarian and Kantian analysis, Tip and Top can arrive at a solution that produces the most utility.
The utilitarian analysis consists of one considering all the options one has and also acknowledging the consequences for all the choices. Each consequence helps determine the utility and the probability, which helps the person make the right decision at the end. Tip and Top’s options in this situation consists of summoning a lawyer and not coercing a confession, or not summoning a lawyer and coercing a confession. If Tip and Top decide to summon a lawyer, the consequences of that action will be either that Zip is back on the streets or that Zip is still found guilty. Not summoning up a lawyer will result in either locking up Zip in prison or getting caught if Zip does end up making a report about such harassment. Every consequence produces a certain amount of utility, but the main component lies in the probability of those consequences ever taking place. When summoning a lawyer, the utility of Zip being back on the streets is low while the probability of that happening is near certainty. In contrast, if Zip is still found guilty, the utility would be higher than high because they did the “right thing” and were able to get what they wanted, yet the probability of this consequence is lower than low. When not summoning a lawyer for Zip, the consequence of locking up Zip and the drug ring has high amount of utility and probability while Zip reporting them to another authority produces a low utility and has low probability. Therefore, according to the Utilitarianism analysis, the right thing to do would be to not summon up a lawyer and most likely, Zip will be locked up and the drug ring will finally end.
The Kantian Analysis helps one execute the right decision through the categorical imperative procedure, known as the CI procedure. It consists of certain steps that one needs to take in order to get to arrive at a solution. Tip and Top will need to create a maxim and fill out the form, “I am to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z.” In this case, they are to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Next step involves generalizing the maxim so that everyone is to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z. In this case, everyone is to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Third step states that the maxim should be transformed into a law of nature so everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to promote Z. Therefore, everyone should refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. The next step involves figuring out the perturbed social world in where one asks himself the question, “what would the world be like with the new law of nature?” In this step, the new law is common knowledge. In this case, if everyone knew that detectives would not summon a lawyer and instead would coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote decreasing of violence and drug abuse, they would not even have lawyers to begin with and innocent people would be found guilty regardless of any evidence. One of the two main questions to ask afterwards is, “Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?” This is where Tip and Top would consider that in the PSW, refusing to summon up a lawyer and coercing a confession in circumstances where it will enable them to get a criminal off the street and break up a drug ring will be effective in order to decrease violence and drug abuse in society. If effective, they should move on to the next consideration in which they should ask themselves, “Could I rationally choose to live in the PSW?” The answer to this would be “no” because Tip and Top would not choose to live in a world where they could be innocent and yet would be forced into confessing something they haven’t done without any legal help from their lawyer because if they did so, it would not be rational.
Ethics – Philo 241
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis
The morally right action to take in everyday life experiences can be determined using various methods such as Utilitarian and Kantian analysis. Each of these methods help one arrive at a predicament in how to act accordingly to given situations. In this case, Tip and Top, both detectives, are dealing with a situation where they are thinking of acting a certain way but aren’t sure if it will provide the most utility at the end. They wish to get Zip, a dangerous criminal off the street; because they are convinced he is guilty. The only problem is that if they follow the legal rules they are to follow and provide Zip with a lawyer, they will not get a conviction out of him and therefore, will lose the case. Zip will be back on the street and will be selling drugs to children once again. Coercing a confession seems like a right decision, but also a wrong thing to do. Using Utilitarian and Kantian analysis, Tip and Top can arrive at a solution that produces the most utility.
The utilitarian analysis consists of one considering all the options one has and also acknowledging the consequences for all the choices. Each consequence helps determine the utility and the probability, which helps the person make the right decision at the end. Tip and Top’s options in this situation consists of summoning a lawyer and not coercing a confession, or not summoning a lawyer and coercing a confession. If Tip and Top decide to summon a lawyer, the consequences of that action will be either that Zip is back on the streets or that Zip is still found guilty. Not summoning up a lawyer will result in either locking up Zip in prison or getting caught if Zip does end up making a report about such harassment. Every consequence produces a certain amount of utility, but the main component lies in the probability of those consequences ever taking place. When summoning a lawyer, the utility of Zip being back on the streets is low while the probability of that happening is near certainty. In contrast, if Zip is still found guilty, the utility would be higher than high because they did the “right thing” and were able to get what they wanted, yet the probability of this consequence is lower than low. When not summoning a lawyer for Zip, the consequence of locking up Zip and the drug ring has high amount of utility and probability while Zip reporting them to another authority produces a low utility and has low probability. Therefore, according to the Utilitarianism analysis, the right thing to do would be to not summon up a lawyer and most likely, Zip will be locked up and the drug ring will finally end.
The Kantian Analysis helps one execute the right decision through the categorical imperative procedure, known as the CI procedure. It consists of certain steps that one needs to take in order to get to arrive at a solution. Tip and Top will need to create a maxim and fill out the form, “I am to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z.” In this case, they are to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Next step involves generalizing the maxim so that everyone is to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z. In this case, everyone is to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Third step states that the maxim should be transformed into a law of nature so everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to promote Z. Therefore, everyone should refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. The next step involves figuring out the perturbed social world in where one asks himself the question, “what would the world be like with the new law of nature?” In this step, the new law is common knowledge. In this case, if everyone knew that detectives would not summon a lawyer and instead would coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote decreasing of violence and drug abuse, they would not even have lawyers to begin with and innocent people would be found guilty regardless of any evidence. One of the two main questions to ask afterwards is, “Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?” This is where Tip and Top would consider that in the PSW, refusing to summon up a lawyer and coercing a confession in circumstances where it will enable them to get a criminal off the street and break up a drug ring will be effective in order to decrease violence and drug abuse in society. If effective, they should move on to the next consideration in which they should ask themselves, “Could I rationally choose to live in the PSW?” The answer to this would be “no” because Tip and Top would not choose to live in a world where they could be innocent and yet would be forced into confessing something they haven’t done without any legal help from their lawyer because if they did so, it would not be rational.
Difference in Carbon Dioxide Production
Laayla Muhammad
Differences in Carbon Dioxide Production
Problem: Do the variations in levels of physical activity alter the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by a person?
Hypothesis: If a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; then the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide.
Procedure (including materials):
1. Gather all materials, which in this experiment are: a 125 mL flask, bromthymol blue, a 50 mL beaker, water, 2 straws, a stop watch, and two individuals (for testing reasons).
2. Fill a 125 mL flask with bromthymol blue
3. Fill a beaker with about 20-40 mL of water
4. Using a straw, exhale air (carbon dioxide) into a flask containing the bromthymol blue.
5. Use a stop watch o record the amount of time it takes to change the solution to green (a point it becomes acidic).
6. Record (by observation) the color of the solution, which is the end point for that trial.
7. Now change the acidic solution back to basic by adding drops of water (as needed). Record the number of drops.
8. Repeat steps 4-7 using a different person, and a different straw.
9. Now do trials 3 and 4 using the same people, but after they have stayed active for about 1 minute.
10. Record all data.
Data:
Trials Physically Active? Time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Average time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Drops of water it took the solution to become basic again
1
No
5:14
4:62 20
2
No
4:10
18
3
Yes
2:24
1.63 15
4
Yes 1:02 11
Conclusion:
To experimentally find out if a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; it was hypothesized that the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide. According to the data collected from the numerous trials during the experiment, the hypothesis was discovered to be correct. This can be proven by scrutinizing the trials by comparing them. Both individuals, when inactive, took more time changing the basic solution to acidic with the average time of 4 minutes and 62 seconds. Yet, when the same individuals became active for about 1 minute, it took them only about average of 1 minute and 63 seconds to change the solution to acidic. The difference of time between the two types of collected data is 3 minutes and 59 seconds. This shows that an active person will produce about 4 times the carbon dioxide than an inactive person.
There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. One of the errors includes the fact that not all trials had the same end point when it came to observing when the solution was completely acidic. Maybe at one point, the solution was claimed to be acidic as it turned light green while some other time, it was claimed acidic when turning yellow. This could have prevented us from recording an accurate data, where the time taken for the color changes could not be reliable. Another error that could have taken place was that we did not count for the number of breaks a person took while blowing. The first person could have taken 14 short breaks while the other person could have taken 14 long ones. When active, a person would probably take more frequent breaks. Another error that could have altered the solutions was the drops of water used to change the solution back to basic. Maybe there were not enough drops put into the beaker that would cause the solution to still remain a bit acidic, and change to a light greenish color very quickly. An error that could have been easily prevented was that one of the persons was chewing Winter Fresh gum while performing the experiment. That could have altered the acidity of the carbon dioxide going in the solution, which could have caused the solution to become acidic slower. All these errors could have affected the time it took for the solution to become acidic.
I have learned that an active person undergoes a higher amount of heart pulses, which causes him/her to intake oxygen more frequently, and therefore, release more carbon dioxide. It would be interesting to figure out whether the types of active workout affect how much carbon dioxide will be produced and also if a person with an active life has the ability to control his/her heart pulse in a “resting” stage and therefore, be able to produce less carbon dioxide.
Differences in Carbon Dioxide Production
Problem: Do the variations in levels of physical activity alter the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by a person?
Hypothesis: If a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; then the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide.
Procedure (including materials):
1. Gather all materials, which in this experiment are: a 125 mL flask, bromthymol blue, a 50 mL beaker, water, 2 straws, a stop watch, and two individuals (for testing reasons).
2. Fill a 125 mL flask with bromthymol blue
3. Fill a beaker with about 20-40 mL of water
4. Using a straw, exhale air (carbon dioxide) into a flask containing the bromthymol blue.
5. Use a stop watch o record the amount of time it takes to change the solution to green (a point it becomes acidic).
6. Record (by observation) the color of the solution, which is the end point for that trial.
7. Now change the acidic solution back to basic by adding drops of water (as needed). Record the number of drops.
8. Repeat steps 4-7 using a different person, and a different straw.
9. Now do trials 3 and 4 using the same people, but after they have stayed active for about 1 minute.
10. Record all data.
Data:
Trials Physically Active? Time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Average time it took for solution to become acidic (minutes) Drops of water it took the solution to become basic again
1
No
5:14
4:62 20
2
No
4:10
18
3
Yes
2:24
1.63 15
4
Yes 1:02 11
Conclusion:
To experimentally find out if a person who’s physically active has a higher pulse due to his/her heart pumping faster; it was hypothesized that the different levels of physical activity do play a role in altering the amount of carbon dioxide being produced by that person because an active individual will require more oxygen and therefore, produce more carbon dioxide. According to the data collected from the numerous trials during the experiment, the hypothesis was discovered to be correct. This can be proven by scrutinizing the trials by comparing them. Both individuals, when inactive, took more time changing the basic solution to acidic with the average time of 4 minutes and 62 seconds. Yet, when the same individuals became active for about 1 minute, it took them only about average of 1 minute and 63 seconds to change the solution to acidic. The difference of time between the two types of collected data is 3 minutes and 59 seconds. This shows that an active person will produce about 4 times the carbon dioxide than an inactive person.
There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. One of the errors includes the fact that not all trials had the same end point when it came to observing when the solution was completely acidic. Maybe at one point, the solution was claimed to be acidic as it turned light green while some other time, it was claimed acidic when turning yellow. This could have prevented us from recording an accurate data, where the time taken for the color changes could not be reliable. Another error that could have taken place was that we did not count for the number of breaks a person took while blowing. The first person could have taken 14 short breaks while the other person could have taken 14 long ones. When active, a person would probably take more frequent breaks. Another error that could have altered the solutions was the drops of water used to change the solution back to basic. Maybe there were not enough drops put into the beaker that would cause the solution to still remain a bit acidic, and change to a light greenish color very quickly. An error that could have been easily prevented was that one of the persons was chewing Winter Fresh gum while performing the experiment. That could have altered the acidity of the carbon dioxide going in the solution, which could have caused the solution to become acidic slower. All these errors could have affected the time it took for the solution to become acidic.
I have learned that an active person undergoes a higher amount of heart pulses, which causes him/her to intake oxygen more frequently, and therefore, release more carbon dioxide. It would be interesting to figure out whether the types of active workout affect how much carbon dioxide will be produced and also if a person with an active life has the ability to control his/her heart pulse in a “resting” stage and therefore, be able to produce less carbon dioxide.
Corrections for Exam 2 - Bio 203
Laayla Muhammad
Corrections for Exam 2
Question 3:
Arrange the following in the proper order from the deepest (1) to most superficial (4).
The deepest layer (1) is the endomysium since it surrounds the skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) and allows room for blood capillaries and nerve fibers to reach each muscle fiber. The second deepest layer is the perimysium, a thicker connective tissue sheath, as it separates each fascicle from neighboring ones. The third deepest layer is called the Epimysium since it actually covers the muscle as a whole. Therefore, the deep fascia (4) would have to be the least deep or most superficial layer of the muscle since it surrounds the actual muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels of the body.
Question 4:
Which three of the following descriptions apply to the dermal papillae?
The three of the following descriptions that apply to the dermal papillae are: a) they prevent slippage at dermal-epidermal boundary, d) they allow nerves and capillaries to come closer to the external surface of the body in some areas, and f) they allow regeneration of the stratum granulosum. All of these choices are true due to certain factual reasons. The boundary between the epidermis and the dermis is histologically conspicuous and usually wavy. The upward waves are fingerlike extensions of the dermis known as dermal papillae. The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which is an arrangement that resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. In highly sensitive areas such as the lips and the genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface.
Question 13:
Match the muscle names with the naming criterion.
The muscle name known as transverses is not a location, but rather falls into the criterion of an orientation (5). The term itself means transverse, or in other words, situated or lying across. This term for example, is used in the muscle known as transverses abdominis.
Question 21:
Put the following events of endochrondral bone formation in the proper order.
Endochrondral bone formation involves several steps that occur in an order. (1) The first step involves chondrocyte hypertrophy and the formation of supportive bony collar. The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model, serving as support for the new bone. (2) The next step involves the invasion by blood vessels and creation of primary marrow space. Basically, a periosteal bud invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes and the vascularization carries osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and hemopoietic cells, which turn into bone marrow later inside. (3) Later, blood vessels grow into secondary marrow space in epiphyses. As growth develops, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and stops. (4) After obliteration of the epiphyseal plate and mix of compact and trabecular bone, articular cartilage remains.
Question 22:
Match each of the joints in the following list to the joint type.
Interphalangeal joints are not condyloid joints, and in fact, are hinge joints (2). This is because the articular surfaces are moulded to each other to permit motion only in one plane, which is forward and backward; movements being extension and flexion. Altantoaxial is actually a pivot joint (4), since there is a pivot articulation between the odontoid process of the axis and the ring formed by the anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas. Radiocarpal joint (wrist-joint) is a condyloid articulation (6) and allows three degrees of freedom. Movements that are permitted from this joint are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction, which the radiocarpal joint permits as well.
Question 26:
Which type of joint is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column?
The type of joint that is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column is symphyses (d), where two bones are joined by fibrocartilage. The joint between the bodies of two vertebrae, united by an intervertebral disc is an example of this type of joint. Therefore, each intervertebral disc permits only slight movement between adjacent vertebrae.
Question 27:
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are ...
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are a circular layer of smooth muscle surrounded by a longitudinal layer of smooth muscle (a). This is a single-unit smooth muscle and in many of the hollow viscera, it forms two or more layers, typically an inner circular layer, in which the myocytes encircle the organ and an outer longitudinal layer in which the myocytes run lengthwise along the organ. The myoctes of this type of muscle are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions.
Question 33:
This image illustrates the relationship between nerve stimulus and muscle response. Which of the following statements is the best description of the relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image?
The relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image is represented by choice b) the strength of the contraction is increased when the frequency of stimulation by the nerve increases to the point where the muscle fiber cannot relax completely between twitches. The force of each twitch builds on the previous one. At high stimulus frequency, the muscle does not have time to relax at all between stimuli and exhibits a state of continual contraction with about four times as much tension as a single twitch. Therefore, tension declines as the muscle fatigues.
Question 36:
What is the functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1?
The functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1 is that the lateral movement of the spinous process is usually restricted by its articulation with the dorsal arch of the vertebra below it. Without it, the atlas is free to rotate (c). The spinous process provides points of attachment for ligaments and spinal muscles. Yet, the atlas does not have a body due to the fact that its body has fused with that of the next vertebra. Therefore, the atlas supports the globe of the head and is specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. It allows one to nod his/her head to indicate “yes” for example.
Question 39:
Dermal papillae are numerous and form relatively high peaks in the palmar and plantar skin, but are more rare in the skin of the face and abdomen. Which of the following is an appropriate interpretation of this difference (check the 2 best answers)?
Dermal papillae form relatively high peaks in the palmar and planter skin when compared to the skin of the face and abdomen due to several reasons. The soles and palms are likely to be under shearing stress, so there is a great need to prevent slippage of the epidermis (a). The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. There are also delicate furrows that divide the skin into tiny rectangular to rhomboid areas on hands and wrists that the dermal papillae is responsible of. In highly sensitive areas lips and genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface. Therefore, it is important to have the papillae close to the surface to allow for a dense covering of body hair on these structures (d).
Corrections for Exam 2
Question 3:
Arrange the following in the proper order from the deepest (1) to most superficial (4).
The deepest layer (1) is the endomysium since it surrounds the skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) and allows room for blood capillaries and nerve fibers to reach each muscle fiber. The second deepest layer is the perimysium, a thicker connective tissue sheath, as it separates each fascicle from neighboring ones. The third deepest layer is called the Epimysium since it actually covers the muscle as a whole. Therefore, the deep fascia (4) would have to be the least deep or most superficial layer of the muscle since it surrounds the actual muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels of the body.
Question 4:
Which three of the following descriptions apply to the dermal papillae?
The three of the following descriptions that apply to the dermal papillae are: a) they prevent slippage at dermal-epidermal boundary, d) they allow nerves and capillaries to come closer to the external surface of the body in some areas, and f) they allow regeneration of the stratum granulosum. All of these choices are true due to certain factual reasons. The boundary between the epidermis and the dermis is histologically conspicuous and usually wavy. The upward waves are fingerlike extensions of the dermis known as dermal papillae. The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which is an arrangement that resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. In highly sensitive areas such as the lips and the genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface.
Question 13:
Match the muscle names with the naming criterion.
The muscle name known as transverses is not a location, but rather falls into the criterion of an orientation (5). The term itself means transverse, or in other words, situated or lying across. This term for example, is used in the muscle known as transverses abdominis.
Question 21:
Put the following events of endochrondral bone formation in the proper order.
Endochrondral bone formation involves several steps that occur in an order. (1) The first step involves chondrocyte hypertrophy and the formation of supportive bony collar. The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model, serving as support for the new bone. (2) The next step involves the invasion by blood vessels and creation of primary marrow space. Basically, a periosteal bud invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes and the vascularization carries osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and hemopoietic cells, which turn into bone marrow later inside. (3) Later, blood vessels grow into secondary marrow space in epiphyses. As growth develops, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and stops. (4) After obliteration of the epiphyseal plate and mix of compact and trabecular bone, articular cartilage remains.
Question 22:
Match each of the joints in the following list to the joint type.
Interphalangeal joints are not condyloid joints, and in fact, are hinge joints (2). This is because the articular surfaces are moulded to each other to permit motion only in one plane, which is forward and backward; movements being extension and flexion. Altantoaxial is actually a pivot joint (4), since there is a pivot articulation between the odontoid process of the axis and the ring formed by the anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas. Radiocarpal joint (wrist-joint) is a condyloid articulation (6) and allows three degrees of freedom. Movements that are permitted from this joint are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction, which the radiocarpal joint permits as well.
Question 26:
Which type of joint is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column?
The type of joint that is found in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the vertebral column is symphyses (d), where two bones are joined by fibrocartilage. The joint between the bodies of two vertebrae, united by an intervertebral disc is an example of this type of joint. Therefore, each intervertebral disc permits only slight movement between adjacent vertebrae.
Question 27:
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are ...
The tissues illustrated in the periphery of this cross-section of the esophagus are a circular layer of smooth muscle surrounded by a longitudinal layer of smooth muscle (a). This is a single-unit smooth muscle and in many of the hollow viscera, it forms two or more layers, typically an inner circular layer, in which the myocytes encircle the organ and an outer longitudinal layer in which the myocytes run lengthwise along the organ. The myoctes of this type of muscle are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions.
Question 33:
This image illustrates the relationship between nerve stimulus and muscle response. Which of the following statements is the best description of the relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image?
The relationship illustrated by the four graphs contained in this image is represented by choice b) the strength of the contraction is increased when the frequency of stimulation by the nerve increases to the point where the muscle fiber cannot relax completely between twitches. The force of each twitch builds on the previous one. At high stimulus frequency, the muscle does not have time to relax at all between stimuli and exhibits a state of continual contraction with about four times as much tension as a single twitch. Therefore, tension declines as the muscle fatigues.
Question 36:
What is the functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1?
The functional advantage of a lack of a spinous process in C1 is that the lateral movement of the spinous process is usually restricted by its articulation with the dorsal arch of the vertebra below it. Without it, the atlas is free to rotate (c). The spinous process provides points of attachment for ligaments and spinal muscles. Yet, the atlas does not have a body due to the fact that its body has fused with that of the next vertebra. Therefore, the atlas supports the globe of the head and is specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. It allows one to nod his/her head to indicate “yes” for example.
Question 39:
Dermal papillae are numerous and form relatively high peaks in the palmar and plantar skin, but are more rare in the skin of the face and abdomen. Which of the following is an appropriate interpretation of this difference (check the 2 best answers)?
Dermal papillae form relatively high peaks in the palmar and planter skin when compared to the skin of the face and abdomen due to several reasons. The soles and palms are likely to be under shearing stress, so there is a great need to prevent slippage of the epidermis (a). The dermal and epidermal boundaries interlock like corrugated cardboard, which resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis. There are also delicate furrows that divide the skin into tiny rectangular to rhomboid areas on hands and wrists that the dermal papillae is responsible of. In highly sensitive areas lips and genitals, tall dermal papillae allow nerve fibers to reach close to the surface. Therefore, it is important to have the papillae close to the surface to allow for a dense covering of body hair on these structures (d).
KANT Scholarship ESSAY!
An action that truly displays moral worth is one done solely from duty. This
action done from duty must also be one motivated in the right way and one that displays the good will. This action that displays moral worth is one done with respect for the moral law, and is done in the absence of any inclination. To further understand this claim, we must first investigate the definition of the good will. Philosopher Immanuel Kant believes that the good will is the only intrinsically good thing in our world. He argues that things like “courage, heroism, and resolve” can be used wrongly; and we know that happiness can’t be the foundation of morality as it is only good if it is gotten in a moral way. An example happiness being reach in an immoral way is a terrorist getting pleasure by murdering civilians. While this act may have produced to most happiness for the person, his happiness surely could not have been legitimate, as murdering someone is immoral. The “will” itself, is the ability of a person to make their own plans and decisions, and set their ends. A straightforward example of this is someone making the statement that, “I am going to be an engineer.” What makes this will “good” is not the end that it achieves but rather the intention, or motivation of the person using it. We can further state that a morally good intention is one in respect to duty alone, not one that might satisfy any desire. Kant exposes the good will and an example of an action that deserves moral praise through the investigation of a series of different situations.
In the series of situations set forth by Kant, we are dealing with a shopkeeper
selling candy to a young child. In the first situation, the shopkeeper overcharges the young lad, acting completely contrary to his duty. His actions neither comply with what is required of him nor display the good will. The second scenario presents the case in which the shopkeeper charges the boy the set price, but only because of some irrational self-interest. According to Kant, this action does not deserve moral praise because while the shopkeeper did perform the morally right action, he had immoral motives leading him to act in such a manner. In the third scenario, the shopkeeper is in an extra happy mood, and knows that acting out of good nature will only increase is own pleasure, so he charges the boy the set price. Although this shopkeeper’s actions did conform to duty, his personal inclinations led him to act in the manner that he did; giving us reason to state that his actions are of no moral worth. In the final scenario, the shopkeeper is in the most terrible of moods, as the jovial boy’s bounce in his step brings genuine pain to the shopkeeper. As the boy puts the money on the counter, the shopkeeper puts all inclinations aside and lets his good will shine by charging the child the set price. In this situation, we can see the good will in action, as the man was able to do the right thing
because it was the right thing to do, all hindrances aside. This, Kant would say, is an action done from duty.
This idea of acting from duty versus acting in conformity with duty is one that
Kant believes plays a pivotal role in whether or not an action is morally praiseworthy. According to Kant, an action done in accordance with duty is one in agreement with the requirements of duty, but not necessarily motivated in the right way. While this action may present itself as the morally good thing to do, it may still be done for the morally wrong reasons. An example of someone acting in accordance with duty but not from duty is a parent enrolling their child into school because he/she does not want other parents questioning his/her parenting practices. In this instance, while the parent is doing the right thing by giving their child the chance to an education, their action is backed by selfish motives. Kant claims that had the parents merely enrolled their kids because it was the right thing to do, their actions would have had some sort of moral worth.
An action done from duty is one that not only conforms to what duty requires of them, but is also motivated in the right sort of way. Kant suggests that an action done from duty not only merits “approval,” but “esteem,” as the person is using his resources to be beneficial but is not influenced by any inclinations. One example of one acting from duty is a completely distressed mother getting up at three in the morning to tend to her crying child. Recognizing the fact that the exhausted mother could have just as easily kept sleeping, she gets up nevertheless because she knows that her taking care of the child is the right thing to do. Another example of someone acting from duty is an exhausted husband taking his wife to the hospital after she goes into labor in the late hours of the night. Having just worked construction for twelve hours that day, the man is extremely tired and definitely not thrilled about getting up, but he nevertheless gets dressed and rushes his wife to the hospital as it is the right thing to do. Acting on no inclination, but rather out of respect for the moral law, Kant would say that these actions are actions done from duty.
Kant believes that we only deserve moral praise when we act from duty because
when we act from duty, we are using reason to dictate our actions. Along with using
reason, we are displaying a sense of autonomy in that we are capable of self-governing in moral matters and fully capable of doing the right thing. Upon using this autonomy, we are able to discover the moral law, and in turn act out of respect for it. Kant elaborates on this idea of acting out of respect by stating, “Only that which is connected with my will merely as a ground, never as an effect… can be an object of respect.” (pg. 16) This statement helps to further persuade us that the good will wants to follow moral law because of its respect for it. Kant believes that we can’t simply respect something because we want to, but rather, we must use reason to discover why we respect something. We can conclude that when an action is done in respect for the moral law, it not only displays the good will, but it is also done from duty.
Kant believes that respect for the moral law is completely separate from an
inclination like hunger or lust. He believes that acting on inclination is part of one’s animal instincts in that one acts because of a specific desire or motive. The difference that Kant attempts to expose between this and the respect for the moral law is that when acting in respect for the moral law, one is acting from duty and doesn’t necessarily want to do the action but does it simply because it is the right thing to do. We must also recognize Kant’s definition of acting in respect to something (as previously discussed); taking note that it involves using reason while acting on an inclination is purely psychological. Kant, therefore would disagree with the claim that one’s respect for the moral law is just another inclination.
action done from duty must also be one motivated in the right way and one that displays the good will. This action that displays moral worth is one done with respect for the moral law, and is done in the absence of any inclination. To further understand this claim, we must first investigate the definition of the good will. Philosopher Immanuel Kant believes that the good will is the only intrinsically good thing in our world. He argues that things like “courage, heroism, and resolve” can be used wrongly; and we know that happiness can’t be the foundation of morality as it is only good if it is gotten in a moral way. An example happiness being reach in an immoral way is a terrorist getting pleasure by murdering civilians. While this act may have produced to most happiness for the person, his happiness surely could not have been legitimate, as murdering someone is immoral. The “will” itself, is the ability of a person to make their own plans and decisions, and set their ends. A straightforward example of this is someone making the statement that, “I am going to be an engineer.” What makes this will “good” is not the end that it achieves but rather the intention, or motivation of the person using it. We can further state that a morally good intention is one in respect to duty alone, not one that might satisfy any desire. Kant exposes the good will and an example of an action that deserves moral praise through the investigation of a series of different situations.
In the series of situations set forth by Kant, we are dealing with a shopkeeper
selling candy to a young child. In the first situation, the shopkeeper overcharges the young lad, acting completely contrary to his duty. His actions neither comply with what is required of him nor display the good will. The second scenario presents the case in which the shopkeeper charges the boy the set price, but only because of some irrational self-interest. According to Kant, this action does not deserve moral praise because while the shopkeeper did perform the morally right action, he had immoral motives leading him to act in such a manner. In the third scenario, the shopkeeper is in an extra happy mood, and knows that acting out of good nature will only increase is own pleasure, so he charges the boy the set price. Although this shopkeeper’s actions did conform to duty, his personal inclinations led him to act in the manner that he did; giving us reason to state that his actions are of no moral worth. In the final scenario, the shopkeeper is in the most terrible of moods, as the jovial boy’s bounce in his step brings genuine pain to the shopkeeper. As the boy puts the money on the counter, the shopkeeper puts all inclinations aside and lets his good will shine by charging the child the set price. In this situation, we can see the good will in action, as the man was able to do the right thing
because it was the right thing to do, all hindrances aside. This, Kant would say, is an action done from duty.
This idea of acting from duty versus acting in conformity with duty is one that
Kant believes plays a pivotal role in whether or not an action is morally praiseworthy. According to Kant, an action done in accordance with duty is one in agreement with the requirements of duty, but not necessarily motivated in the right way. While this action may present itself as the morally good thing to do, it may still be done for the morally wrong reasons. An example of someone acting in accordance with duty but not from duty is a parent enrolling their child into school because he/she does not want other parents questioning his/her parenting practices. In this instance, while the parent is doing the right thing by giving their child the chance to an education, their action is backed by selfish motives. Kant claims that had the parents merely enrolled their kids because it was the right thing to do, their actions would have had some sort of moral worth.
An action done from duty is one that not only conforms to what duty requires of them, but is also motivated in the right sort of way. Kant suggests that an action done from duty not only merits “approval,” but “esteem,” as the person is using his resources to be beneficial but is not influenced by any inclinations. One example of one acting from duty is a completely distressed mother getting up at three in the morning to tend to her crying child. Recognizing the fact that the exhausted mother could have just as easily kept sleeping, she gets up nevertheless because she knows that her taking care of the child is the right thing to do. Another example of someone acting from duty is an exhausted husband taking his wife to the hospital after she goes into labor in the late hours of the night. Having just worked construction for twelve hours that day, the man is extremely tired and definitely not thrilled about getting up, but he nevertheless gets dressed and rushes his wife to the hospital as it is the right thing to do. Acting on no inclination, but rather out of respect for the moral law, Kant would say that these actions are actions done from duty.
Kant believes that we only deserve moral praise when we act from duty because
when we act from duty, we are using reason to dictate our actions. Along with using
reason, we are displaying a sense of autonomy in that we are capable of self-governing in moral matters and fully capable of doing the right thing. Upon using this autonomy, we are able to discover the moral law, and in turn act out of respect for it. Kant elaborates on this idea of acting out of respect by stating, “Only that which is connected with my will merely as a ground, never as an effect… can be an object of respect.” (pg. 16) This statement helps to further persuade us that the good will wants to follow moral law because of its respect for it. Kant believes that we can’t simply respect something because we want to, but rather, we must use reason to discover why we respect something. We can conclude that when an action is done in respect for the moral law, it not only displays the good will, but it is also done from duty.
Kant believes that respect for the moral law is completely separate from an
inclination like hunger or lust. He believes that acting on inclination is part of one’s animal instincts in that one acts because of a specific desire or motive. The difference that Kant attempts to expose between this and the respect for the moral law is that when acting in respect for the moral law, one is acting from duty and doesn’t necessarily want to do the action but does it simply because it is the right thing to do. We must also recognize Kant’s definition of acting in respect to something (as previously discussed); taking note that it involves using reason while acting on an inclination is purely psychological. Kant, therefore would disagree with the claim that one’s respect for the moral law is just another inclination.
Analysis of Alum KAl (SO4) 2 . 12H2O
Analysis of Alum KAl (SO4)2 . 12H2O
Laayla Muhammad
10/31/06 -11/01/06
Purpose: To do several tests to determine if the resulting crystals are really alum, to use a Thiele melting point tube to determine the melting point of synthesized sample of alum and to determine the amount of water in a synthesized sample of alum and also the percent sulfate in a synthesized sample of alum.
Procedure/Method: First I have to find the melting point of alum and to do that, I have to pulverize the small amount (0.5g) of dry alum. Then I’ll pack the alum in a capillary tube (1 cm) and cut a 1mm length of rubber tubing and fasten the capillary tube to a thermometer. Then I’ll fasten that to a ring stand. Next step is to immerse bottom of capillary and thermometer in a beaker of H2O and heat. I will have to remember to heat slowly as closer to the melting point to get an accurate value. Then I’ll record the temperature at which my alum crystals melt. I will compare the experimental & published values. Next I have to determine the amount of water of hydration in alum crystals. Then I’ll find the mass of crucible with the cover on a sensitive balance. I will add two grams of alum crystals to the crucible and then find the mass of crucible, the cover, and the crystal alums. I will heat and the alum crystals will melt and water of hydration will vaporize. After heating it for 5 minutes, I will cool and find the mass of crucible, cover, and anhydrous alum. I will calculate the mass driven off. Next step is to find the moles of anhydrous KAl (SO4)2 and the moles of H2O. Then I will calculate the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2 and give the calculate formula of alum, KAl (SO4)2 * X H2O, where X = the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2. I will compare the values with that of alum. Then I will determine the percent sulfate in alum by doing the following. I will use suction to pull distilled water through filter pad and dry it in oven. I will determine mass by a sensitive balance and measure the mass of filter paper. I will weigh 1 gram of alum into a 250 mL beaker and dissolve 50 mL of distilled water. Calculate volume of 0.2M Ba(NO3)2 and add twice this volume of Ba(NO3)2, stirring. I will heat and cool it over night. I will filter precipitate and use rubber policeman so that every particle is transferred from beaker into crucible. I will wash beaker and precipitate several times with small quantities of water and transfer filter crucible to beaker and dry in oven (at 500C so it doesn’t char). I will let it cool and mass it. That is how I will calculate the percent sulfate in alum and compare it to the value of its formula.
Data:
Melting Point (temperature in degrees Celsius) of alum crystals:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
90.0
90.1
90.3
90.13
The published data value for alum crystals melting point is 92.5 meaning our melting point was about 2.37 degrees Celsius off.
Massed Objects Mass (g)
Massed out crystals 2 grams
Crucible + Cover 30.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Alum Crystals 32.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Anhydrous Alum 31.1591 g
Calculated Anhydrous Alum .9514 g
Calculated Water driven off 1.0486 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper 15.8050 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper + Dried Precipitate 16.0230 g
Calculated Dried Precipitate .218 g
Calculations:
Calculations made to find out the amount of Ba(NO3)2 needed to totally precipitate all of the sulfate ion present in the solution plus twice this volume:
1 gram alum X 1 mol alum X 1 mol SO42- X 1 mol Ba2+ X 1 mol Ba(NO3)2
474.4 g alum 1 mol alum 2 mol SO42- 1 mol Ba2+
X 5 L Ba(NO3)2 = About 21 mL ( multiplied by 2) = 42 mL needed
1 mol Ba2+
(Other Calculations)
32.1105-30.1105 = 2 grams of crystals
32.1105-31.1591 = .9514 anhydrous alum
2.000-.9514=1.0486 grams of hydrated H2O
.9514g anhydrous alum X 1 mol anhydrous alum = .003628 mol anhydrous alum
262.22 g anhydrous alum
1.0486g hydrated H2O X 1 mol H2O = .05825 mol H2O
18g H2O
.05828 mol H2O = 16.056 mol (About 16) = X
.003628 mol anhydrous alum
KAl(SO4)2 * 16 H2O
1.0145g BaSO4 X 1 mol of BaSO4 X 2 mol SO4 X 96.066 g SO4 = .4176 g SO4
233.393g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4 2 mol SO4
100 X .4176g SO4 = 41.2% SO4 present in the alum
1.0145g alum
Questions/Answers:
1. Objects must be cooled before their mass is found on a sensitive balance because their accurate mass when still warm could alter the result in finding out the actual mass of the object. This could be due to the fact that when heated, objects have more energy so they weigh more and have a higher mass than the cold objects.
2. The different tests used to verify that the substance tested was alum was the melting point at which we knew that the crystal alum would melt at 92.5 degrees Celsius.
3. Other tests could be made to verify the compositions of alum. For example, we can use the percentage of the sulfate in the alum and use it to find its mole ratio and figure out how much water is in the synthesized alum.
Conclusions: To conclude, the precipitate that came out in as a result were alum crystals according to many tests we took. For example, its melting point was average 90.13 and we know that alum crystals published melting point is 92.5. We figured out by calculation that there needs to be total of 42 mL of Ba(NO3)2 to filter the precipitate completely. There is about 16 mol of H2O, as calculated, in the synthesized alum. After calculating, we also figured out that there was about 41.2 percent of sulfate in the synthesized alum.
Experimental Sources of Error: There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. While figuring out the melting point for the alum crystals, I could have not analyzed when the alum crystals started melting exactly, leading me to maybe assume it was the first temperature that my eyes noticed. Another error could have been made while massing out the crucible, the cover, or the anhydrous alum, which would throw off my calculations when figuring out the mol to mol ratio of the given formulas. I could have also made an error filtering the precipitate Ba(NO3)2, in a way where not all the precipitate was filtered thoroughly from the beaker to the gooch crucible. Such imprecise and maybe even inaccurate measurements could be responsible for altering the following results for figuring out the exact percentage of sulfate in the alum.
Laayla Muhammad
10/31/06 -11/01/06
Purpose: To do several tests to determine if the resulting crystals are really alum, to use a Thiele melting point tube to determine the melting point of synthesized sample of alum and to determine the amount of water in a synthesized sample of alum and also the percent sulfate in a synthesized sample of alum.
Procedure/Method: First I have to find the melting point of alum and to do that, I have to pulverize the small amount (0.5g) of dry alum. Then I’ll pack the alum in a capillary tube (1 cm) and cut a 1mm length of rubber tubing and fasten the capillary tube to a thermometer. Then I’ll fasten that to a ring stand. Next step is to immerse bottom of capillary and thermometer in a beaker of H2O and heat. I will have to remember to heat slowly as closer to the melting point to get an accurate value. Then I’ll record the temperature at which my alum crystals melt. I will compare the experimental & published values. Next I have to determine the amount of water of hydration in alum crystals. Then I’ll find the mass of crucible with the cover on a sensitive balance. I will add two grams of alum crystals to the crucible and then find the mass of crucible, the cover, and the crystal alums. I will heat and the alum crystals will melt and water of hydration will vaporize. After heating it for 5 minutes, I will cool and find the mass of crucible, cover, and anhydrous alum. I will calculate the mass driven off. Next step is to find the moles of anhydrous KAl (SO4)2 and the moles of H2O. Then I will calculate the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2 and give the calculate formula of alum, KAl (SO4)2 * X H2O, where X = the ratio of moles H2O: moles KAl (SO4)2. I will compare the values with that of alum. Then I will determine the percent sulfate in alum by doing the following. I will use suction to pull distilled water through filter pad and dry it in oven. I will determine mass by a sensitive balance and measure the mass of filter paper. I will weigh 1 gram of alum into a 250 mL beaker and dissolve 50 mL of distilled water. Calculate volume of 0.2M Ba(NO3)2 and add twice this volume of Ba(NO3)2, stirring. I will heat and cool it over night. I will filter precipitate and use rubber policeman so that every particle is transferred from beaker into crucible. I will wash beaker and precipitate several times with small quantities of water and transfer filter crucible to beaker and dry in oven (at 500C so it doesn’t char). I will let it cool and mass it. That is how I will calculate the percent sulfate in alum and compare it to the value of its formula.
Data:
Melting Point (temperature in degrees Celsius) of alum crystals:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
90.0
90.1
90.3
90.13
The published data value for alum crystals melting point is 92.5 meaning our melting point was about 2.37 degrees Celsius off.
Massed Objects Mass (g)
Massed out crystals 2 grams
Crucible + Cover 30.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Alum Crystals 32.1105 g
Crucible + Cover + Anhydrous Alum 31.1591 g
Calculated Anhydrous Alum .9514 g
Calculated Water driven off 1.0486 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper 15.8050 g
Gooch Crucible + Filter Paper + Dried Precipitate 16.0230 g
Calculated Dried Precipitate .218 g
Calculations:
Calculations made to find out the amount of Ba(NO3)2 needed to totally precipitate all of the sulfate ion present in the solution plus twice this volume:
1 gram alum X 1 mol alum X 1 mol SO42- X 1 mol Ba2+ X 1 mol Ba(NO3)2
474.4 g alum 1 mol alum 2 mol SO42- 1 mol Ba2+
X 5 L Ba(NO3)2 = About 21 mL ( multiplied by 2) = 42 mL needed
1 mol Ba2+
(Other Calculations)
32.1105-30.1105 = 2 grams of crystals
32.1105-31.1591 = .9514 anhydrous alum
2.000-.9514=1.0486 grams of hydrated H2O
.9514g anhydrous alum X 1 mol anhydrous alum = .003628 mol anhydrous alum
262.22 g anhydrous alum
1.0486g hydrated H2O X 1 mol H2O = .05825 mol H2O
18g H2O
.05828 mol H2O = 16.056 mol (About 16) = X
.003628 mol anhydrous alum
KAl(SO4)2 * 16 H2O
1.0145g BaSO4 X 1 mol of BaSO4 X 2 mol SO4 X 96.066 g SO4 = .4176 g SO4
233.393g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4 2 mol SO4
100 X .4176g SO4 = 41.2% SO4 present in the alum
1.0145g alum
Questions/Answers:
1. Objects must be cooled before their mass is found on a sensitive balance because their accurate mass when still warm could alter the result in finding out the actual mass of the object. This could be due to the fact that when heated, objects have more energy so they weigh more and have a higher mass than the cold objects.
2. The different tests used to verify that the substance tested was alum was the melting point at which we knew that the crystal alum would melt at 92.5 degrees Celsius.
3. Other tests could be made to verify the compositions of alum. For example, we can use the percentage of the sulfate in the alum and use it to find its mole ratio and figure out how much water is in the synthesized alum.
Conclusions: To conclude, the precipitate that came out in as a result were alum crystals according to many tests we took. For example, its melting point was average 90.13 and we know that alum crystals published melting point is 92.5. We figured out by calculation that there needs to be total of 42 mL of Ba(NO3)2 to filter the precipitate completely. There is about 16 mol of H2O, as calculated, in the synthesized alum. After calculating, we also figured out that there was about 41.2 percent of sulfate in the synthesized alum.
Experimental Sources of Error: There could have been several errors made while performing this experiment. While figuring out the melting point for the alum crystals, I could have not analyzed when the alum crystals started melting exactly, leading me to maybe assume it was the first temperature that my eyes noticed. Another error could have been made while massing out the crucible, the cover, or the anhydrous alum, which would throw off my calculations when figuring out the mol to mol ratio of the given formulas. I could have also made an error filtering the precipitate Ba(NO3)2, in a way where not all the precipitate was filtered thoroughly from the beaker to the gooch crucible. Such imprecise and maybe even inaccurate measurements could be responsible for altering the following results for figuring out the exact percentage of sulfate in the alum.
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