Confusion

It exists within me. It exists within us. It exists in every assurance, in every confident soul. It leads us to question who we are, who you are, what this world is, and why we're here. It paralyzes us to the extent that we become dependent on it. We become hateful towards anything that could confuse us more. And it's a never ending cycle. A never ending path of confusion that we avoid by taking one. Will it ever end? Well, how could it? Confusion gives birth to confusion. Confusion is grown into a disaster. A wrathful circle of misunderstandings. You're a victim of it. I'm a victim of it. It's a victim of it.

Insane

Not a second of it goes by. Not a moment is gone. Not a breath is wasted. Not a sight is hidden. Everything is drenched in nothingness. I am not lost. I have seen the light and I remain in the brightness hoping that my words can give birth. I am dead but I hope to live.

Surround me with yourself

I need it. IT being you. You're not an it though. You're my fantasy. Can it be a fantasy? Can a fantasy be an it? Can I be a fantasy? Can I be yours tonight? Can I shower myself in you? Can I shower you with me? A fantasy?

Explain to me.

I must be not be embedded. I must be not placed in properly.. or squeezed in properly. I do not fit. I am an outcast and you made me this way. I am a square within a circle. My corners are out there, in the cold, in the dark, in the shadows. They are uncovered and there's no more of you to take over. To seize. And this must mean only one thing, part of me is lonely. No matter what you do, I will be lonely. I will be unhappy. I won't ever become you. Never completely that is. And am I happy about this? Perhaps... because I will always have those corners free and I will always have some sort of attachment to the lonely world out there. You won't be able to invade me to the full extent and as much as I may want it at times, I need to be thankful for it. Thankful that my corners can breathe and can stand on their own. I may be not satisfied because I may feel unfinished but at least, I'll be completely not fully dependent. You catch what I'm saying? Can you catch anything? You caught me, partially. Can you make sure you catch what I'm saying fully though? It's something important, unlike me. This is a lot bigger than you. A lot bigger than me. This is us.

Solving for X.

You're a force. A force of negative and positive vibes. Which vibe pierces my mind? Which one pierces my heart? An unknown answer. Factor X, but you can't factor X. Remember that. You can't factor an unknown. You can't divide it. You can't produce more of it. You can't be it. You can't do anything with it, until you find what it is. And that's what the problem is. I don't even know who you are. You're an unknown. You're my X. I can spend time and solve for you. I could live for you. I could live solving for you. I could do all that, but what about me? I'm the known. I get taken advantage of. I get pushed side to side. Left to right. Right to left. I get used to solve for you. It's all about you at the end. You get to steal the spotlight. You get to stay so still. You can't be disturbed. You can't be moved. You can't be explored, not until I can discover you. You're uncharted. You're hidden. Ironic because in your shadow, I'm the one hiding. It's the only way I can express myself. Being captivated under your breath. Being the hostage of your anger. Being the target for your hate. I'm out there. Everyone sees me. I get attacked. I'm known. Not X you see. I'm known and that's why I am judged. I am told just how useless I am. But you see. I don't find myself useless because without me, no one would be there to discover you. No one would be able to touch you. No one would come near you. You'd be impossible to crack. Impossible to be what you are because no one would even try. I'm your only hope. You need me to be you. You need me to be solved. Without me, you'd be factor X forever without having the ability to be factored out. You'd be an unsolved equation and not because you'd be too hard to figure out. But because you'd be IMPOSSIBLE. You wouldn't even exist as valid. I give you your fucking validity. Without me, you might as well not exist. So you see. The known is needed. The known is essential your existence as the unknown. Don't you forget it either because the second you do... you'd cease to be.

Hypocrisy

I can't stand it. I won't stand it. If you involve yourself in hypocrisy, please un-involve me in your profile. I can't face those who indulge in something they can't escape from. It's something rooted down in their blood. They are made of it and I refuse to let myself become anything like them. They see nothing, but what they want to see. They don't let people tell them the truth, because they have their own. They may have their justifications, but what does that have to do with me? How can they justify the way they treat me? What did I do to be the victim of their hypocrisy? Their lies are invading their lives. My life. Everyone around them. They become what they despise and they are forcing me to become more like them. They are telling me. Commanding me. Demanding that I must do what they say because if I didn't, I'm a hypocrite. That I am what I despise. No. I will be what I despise if I become like YOU. That's the truth. You're hatred. And I want love.

So leave me alone. Let me be. Don't let me associate myself with you. I never wanted to either. I was doing you a favor. You are a hypocrite and I can't be with you. I can't let you take over. Not again. You did it often and I was too naive and I let it happen. But now I am my own individual. I get to choose. I did get to choose before but the decision wasn't mine. This time it will be. I promise you, not that my promises matter because your lies prevent you from trusting anyone. I don't trust you either though. You're ready to erupt, and you ask for sympathy. I can't give any. You've taken it all. Now leave me alone. I am not asking. I am telling you. Let me speak my mind. Let me say what I want to. Let me swim in the truth. Let me bake it so it can seep into my pores. I want to sweat the truth. I want to be covered in it. I want to be known for it. I want to be associated with the truth and that way I won't ever be associated with YOU. You've become your nightmare. You've become our nightmare. I'm sorry. I am. I wish it wasn't so, but it is and I can't stand you when you are this way.

Act 3

Act 3 was pretty interesting to read overall. I found many parts/conversations to be hilarious/interesting, so I'm briefly going to list and explain them.

This part wasn't "interesting" but was actually just weird. (Scene 2) This is when Touchstone and Corin were talking and Touchstone was being the witty guy that he is. I thought it was extremely weird yet funny when Touchstone says how Corin's committing a crime by forcing the ewes and rams to "copulate" with one another. Hahaha. I was like "what the..?!!" That was so random to me. Really.

I found this quote to be really interesting as well. It's line 104 in scene 2. It's when Touchstone says, "Truly, the tree yields bad fruit." I don't know why but I found it to be funny because Rosalind goes "fool I found them on the tree!" But to be honest, right after (starting at line 105).. I have no idea what the heck is being said. What's this talk about a medler and ripeness and death? Is she threatening to kill him before it's his time to die?

The most interesting part in Act 3 was when Rosalind and Celia were going back and forth towards the end of scene 2. Rosalind was insulting the quality of the poems and the next thing she knows, it's Orlando who wrote them. The way Celia was responding back to Rosalind's "love lines" was just hilarious to read. She's clearly jealous and finds it absurd that Rosalind is able to love someone so quickly. When Celia makes a comment like calling Orlando a "wounded knight" laying under the tree, Rosalind answers by saying, "it well becomes the ground." It's just crazy how Celia keeps trying to put Orlando down yet Rosalind is turning such insults into compliments. This reminds me of when we were discussing how Celia might be jealous of Orlando and someone suggested (I forgot who, sorry) that Rosalind might be talking on and on about Orlando just to kind of give Celia the hint that she isn't interested in her. I also found it funny when Orlando and Jaques were going back and forth with insults. I guess I just enjoy conversations where the characters are making witty and harsh comments towards one another.

I have a question about lines 276-278 at the very end of scene 2. What is exactly being said here???

Uhm let's see..what else. Oh yes.. I think it was quite funny when Touchstone made a witty comment about marriage (lines 72-75) in scene 3. I'm sure everyone notices these kind of jokes still going around in the society today. I guess it never gets old.
And one last part in (scene 5)... that I found to be very interesting was when Rosalind (as Ganymede) came out of no where and started making BRUTAL comments towards Phoebe. I couldn't believe what I was reading. She kept insulting her looks and telling her not to fall in love with "him." There's this common notion that in relationships, "good" girls/guys always go for the "assholes" Pardon my language. But it's so true!! We kind of see it in this scene. Silvius likes Phoebe, who clearly hates his guts. When Ganymede insults Phoebe and scorns her, she's offended yet she starts asking Silvius about him. She tells Silvius it's not because she likes him but I mean what the heck is up with her when she says, "Dead shepherd, now I find thy saw of might:
“Who ever loved that loved not at first sight?” - Is that supposed to mean something because she didn't follow up on that thought as Silvius interrupted her.

Okay, I've typed too much. BYE!

Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis

Laayla Muhammad

Ethics – Philo 241
Utilitarian & Kantian Analysis

The morally right action to take in everyday life experiences can be determined using various methods such as Utilitarian and Kantian analysis. Each of these methods help one arrive at a predicament in how to act accordingly to given situations. In this case, Tip and Top, both detectives, are dealing with a situation where they are thinking of acting a certain way but aren’t sure if it will provide the most utility at the end. They wish to get Zip, a dangerous criminal off the street; because they are convinced he is guilty. The only problem is that if they follow the legal rules they are to follow and provide Zip with a lawyer, they will not get a conviction out of him and therefore, will lose the case. Zip will be back on the street and will be selling drugs to children once again. Coercing a confession seems like a right decision, but also a wrong thing to do. Using Utilitarian and Kantian analysis, Tip and Top can arrive at a solution that produces the most utility.
The utilitarian analysis consists of one considering all the options one has and also acknowledging the consequences for all the choices. Each consequence helps determine the utility and the probability, which helps the person make the right decision at the end. Tip and Top’s options in this situation consists of summoning a lawyer and not coercing a confession, or not summoning a lawyer and coercing a confession. If Tip and Top decide to summon a lawyer, the consequences of that action will be either that Zip is back on the streets or that Zip is still found guilty. Not summoning up a lawyer will result in either locking up Zip in prison or getting caught if Zip does end up making a report about such harassment. Every consequence produces a certain amount of utility, but the main component lies in the probability of those consequences ever taking place. When summoning a lawyer, the utility of Zip being back on the streets is low while the probability of that happening is near certainty. In contrast, if Zip is still found guilty, the utility would be higher than high because they did the “right thing” and were able to get what they wanted, yet the probability of this consequence is lower than low. When not summoning a lawyer for Zip, the consequence of locking up Zip and the drug ring has high amount of utility and probability while Zip reporting them to another authority produces a low utility and has low probability. Therefore, according to the Utilitarianism analysis, the right thing to do would be to not summon up a lawyer and most likely, Zip will be locked up and the drug ring will finally end.
The Kantian Analysis helps one execute the right decision through the categorical imperative procedure, known as the CI procedure. It consists of certain steps that one needs to take in order to get to arrive at a solution. Tip and Top will need to create a maxim and fill out the form, “I am to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z.” In this case, they are to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Next step involves generalizing the maxim so that everyone is to do x in circumstances y in order to promote z. In this case, everyone is to refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. Third step states that the maxim should be transformed into a law of nature so everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to promote Z. Therefore, everyone should refuse the request to summon a lawyer and coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote the goal of decreasing violence and drug abuse in society. The next step involves figuring out the perturbed social world in where one asks himself the question, “what would the world be like with the new law of nature?” In this step, the new law is common knowledge. In this case, if everyone knew that detectives would not summon a lawyer and instead would coerce a confession in circumstances that it will enable them to get a dangerous criminal off the street and break up a drug ring, in order to promote decreasing of violence and drug abuse, they would not even have lawyers to begin with and innocent people would be found guilty regardless of any evidence. One of the two main questions to ask afterwards is, “Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?” This is where Tip and Top would consider that in the PSW, refusing to summon up a lawyer and coercing a confession in circumstances where it will enable them to get a criminal off the street and break up a drug ring will be effective in order to decrease violence and drug abuse in society. If effective, they should move on to the next consideration in which they should ask themselves, “Could I rationally choose to live in the PSW?” The answer to this would be “no” because Tip and Top would not choose to live in a world where they could be innocent and yet would be forced into confessing something they haven’t done without any legal help from their lawyer because if they did so, it would not be rational.

Flexibility

Sometimes it's more convenient to be suspicious. To play the blame game. Well, when isn't the blame game convenient? But there has to be a limit, right? I don't think it exists though. I don't think it ever will because people are going to push the line. They will keep pushing it until they can't anymore. That's when a thing becomes an alteration. One that can't stop changing. It's like time.

That's why this world, even with rules and guidelines and directions and instructions and methods and procedures and steps and such.... it will always be chaotic. Someone always thinks otherwise. Someone will always not agree. Someone will always raise his or her hand and disagree. And our problem is, we easily agree to disagree and let things be. We let this world become chaotic. We let it stretch like a rubber band until it breaks and people fall. They fall and foolishness that exists within them lets them think they are free. But the truth is, they've just been captured. They are captives. They have been kidnapped. Seized. Invaded. Taken over. Conquered. Caught. Trapped! By who? Themselves.

Small

I wanted to explore the world, see everything all at once. Well, maybe not all at once, but at least see it to feel it. People are so small minded, they are so..content with just being there. Content with not moving, not wondering, not being curious. They are happy with just .... being there, as if "there" was something that they were always aiming for. Why would they not care to know more? To not wonder? To not think about what's out there? To see it? To feel it? To hear it? To touch it? To smell it? We are given our senses. God is giving. We are given common sense. We are told to give because we should also be generous. But we don't. We don't give. We get. We grab. We can't think about anyone, unless that anyone is us.. and in that case, that anyone becomes someone. We are special, yet the person we are looking at.. isn't. We are small. Too small. And the world looks too big to us, too big to comprehend. So we stay small minded. We stay in short circles. We are short minded. We become anger, because anger is powerful. Powerful and big. And we are so small, it overtakes us. It invades us. We are specs, tiny specs. It's not that we are made of flaws, but that we are flaws. We are small flaws though, and together..we become big. Unity makes us big. But at the end, we have just become a bigger flaw. A bigger small minded circle, in which the only question we ask is, "Why me?" Individualism will exist... always. But it's going to tear us down.

Mis mis mis mis mis!

It's another year. It's another opportunity for each one of you to misunderstand, misdiagnose and miscommunicate each other. We're composed of flaws, flaws that are triggered by mistakes we make. And then you have the balls to ask me why I'm such a Misanthropist?

Hate for survival.

A few of us might admit it, but most of us won't. We, humans, find reasons to justify why we initially hate. We will use our strength, what we've learned, what we've tried to get accustomed to, towards a negative situation. A situation that won't necessary become negative for us, but it follows a negative process. Hate. We justify it. We need it in our lives. All the negative emotions inside us need to be released. And most importantly, released towards something, or someone. And we do just that. It is regarded as normal, merely ....human nature. But in reality, not ours, but the one that can't be transformed according to circumstances, will always reveal to us the truth. The truth is that human nature relies on hate for survival.

Goals.

People with no goals in life end up goal-less. Goal less meaning.... there are no expectations to achieve any. Right? Wrong. Usually those who don't create goals actually expect too much out of life. It's as if they should have to do no work and life should unravel on its own. It's dillusion and it's saddening. Let's help each other see the light?

Truth

You think you understand someone, understand something, understand the process... but you don't even understand yourself. That's the truth. But it is not the only truth. This means that there is more than one truth, not that the truth cannot be the truth, becxause its identity will never change. The truth is there, along with many. But every truth has its place. Every truth belongs. It can remain hidden, forever. But it will exist in its place, underneath the dust. Underneath the ego. So let's use this knowledge to remember that we can't alter the truth, we can't change the truth, we can't deny its composition or its identity, and we definitely can't replace it with another truth even if there are more than one. The other truths have their own places and they can't ever be replaced either.

Inner Hatred

It's hard for people to admit that they are wrong, especially elders. They are so screwed up. It's beyond too late to fix them. They demand respect. I am against respecting someone who degrades you and demands to be worshipped. It's uncalled for. If you are wrong, say sorry and ley bygones be bygones. Don't pretend to be right, you aren't. We know already.

Ignorance.

It's amazing how ignorant one CHOOSES to be. It takes effort, believe it. Choosing to close your eyes when the truth is revealed to you. How much does a person have to go through in order to convince someone of the truth? How ignorant do you have to be? Why lead a ignorant life? Why not just admit you're wrong about something and you always will be because you don't choose to correct yourself. If you've convinced yourself of the lie, there's no way you can ever change your mind to the truth. But if you leave a little space for correction, to be taught, to be told what's really the truth, then that's all it takes.

And those people that choose to stay blind. To turn away from what's right and convince themselves of a lie because it's easier to "live" that way...... you make me sick. I'm pretty sure you make everyone so sick. It's not easy being ignorant. I can't even ignore the ignorant, that's how hard it can get. So open your fucking eyes. Tape them open if you have to. Learn to learn. To give up when you have to and try to understand. Try to listen. Try to believe. Try to stop doubting every word that comes out. No one wants to listen to your lies because they know the truth. It's IMPOSSIBLE to listen to someone lie. And the more they lie, the more you want to stand up and shout out. And sometimes I do. Sometimes it's the only way to stop yourself from listening to the lies. Not because you think you'll turn like them and start believing the lies, but because the lies make you go crazy. The lies aren't the truth. That's all I can say about lies. That's what I want to say about you. You ignorant ignorant..ignorant illusionist.

Eugene Delacroix

Laayla Muhammad
Block 1
May 24, 2007

Eugene Delacroix
If Eugene Delacroix painted my portrait, he would capture the moment while I am protesting against the government at an immigration march. Delacroix is known to have a Romantic style in his paintings, as he chooses historical events to depict the points he’s trying to make. I would be leading a crowd with a picket sign stating “Give Equal Rights!” I would be wearing a tank top, which’s straps would be falling off due to the struggle of being pushed and shoved in different directions of the crowd. I would be sweaty and my hair would be tied up in a ponytail. One of my arms will be raised, with my hand curled up like a fist in the air. While facing the crowd, the front and side of my body would be facing the viewers. The setting will take place in Milwaukee, Wisconsin around downtown around in the late afternoon, making the time the sun sets just around the corner.
The portrait painted would contain certain characteristics that would cause it to be labeled as a Romantic piece of art by Delacroix. The background would emphasize the rays of the sun, making the overall tint of the painting orange-red. This color resembles the anger and frustration involved in the historical event taken place. My face expression would be of a furious individual who has her mouth open due to all the shouting. The crowd along and I would be fighting for justice and complete liberty, something Delacroix would likely capture in his painting.
The image would seem hectic at first, when viewers notice the angry crowd. Within few seconds, the attention would be brought upon me, as viewers try to comprehend the point of the picture along with the mood. I would be standing on top of government officials that would be held responsible for the wrong decisions made at the time. They would be trying to escape from underneath my feet but I would be carelessly stomping on their wrists with brand new watches. This action would resemble my protest against the concept of “killing time,” when it comes to the process of immigration. The fog in the picture would resemble the confusion that the government is responsible of. The temporary cry of the children since their picket signs are broken would reflect not only their innocence and inability to understand the rally, but their instability in staying as residents in America at the time
. Delacroix is known to bring attention to historical political events through his paintings often. While in the past he captured such a moment in “Liberty Leading the People,” in the present he would surely paint one of female leaders in the immigration protest march. The colors of the image resemble the emotions felt by the individuals painted in the portrait while the individuals and their actions captured reflect the happenings of not only the present, but also the future time. If Delacroix happened to paint my portrait, I would sure be a leading female in an immigration march, fighting for justice and the freedom immigrants deserve.

Only Connect

In Professor Bill Cronin’s essay, The Ten Qualities of a Liberal Educated Person, he uses E.M. Forster’s injunction in the novel Howard’s End “Only connect” and states: “If one could pick just one phrase that would answer the question of what it means to be a liberally educated person surely this would be it: Only connect.” How does this statement relate to your motivation for earning a liberal arts degree? (500 word maximum)


The statement “Only Connect” that Professor Bill Cronin used in his essay, “The Ten Qualities of a Liberal Educated Person,” from E.M Forster’s novel Howard’s End, is an injunction that motivates me to earn a liberal arts degree in variety of ways. To connect is to be able to express yourself through your knowledge and past experiences to help you communicate with your surrounding. The better understanding you have of variety of subjects, the easier it becomes to blend in with society and relate to those around you. A liberal education helps you become stable with confidence and positively affects your life in the future. It is greatly important to comprehend the concept of obtaining a degree that has the mere purpose of letting you become more aware of your surroundings to live a life with lesser obstacles.
Many students aim to obtain a specific degree towards their intended career and life goals because it seems more convenient. People choose to only learn about what they think they will directly benefit from, rather than considering knowledge as a tool that can help them live their live every single day. A liberal arts degree reveals opportunities to explore your wide range of interests and skills. With such awareness, you can broaden your line of thinking and use your curiosity to your advantage. Every person deserves the chance to gain an education that provides them the information they need in more than one particular subject. For example, a student may have the strongest desire to be involved in the medical field. Therefore, the student will be seeking a medical degree, assuming it’s the only solution that makes sense. Eventually, if he/she decides to make adjustments or changes to general career goals, it would become quite difficult. What the student needs to realize is, gaining such a degree limits an individual to what they can accomplish later on during their lifetime.
The actual phrase, “only connect” refers to the way you can use a liberal arts degree to become informative in more than one area. You can gain a complete understanding in not only academic subjects, but also areas such as music and art. Everyone has different goals and potential to achieve those goals. The way to accomplish great things and succeed, you have to be able to recognize more than one concept. The whole idea of gaining a liberal education is so you can appreciate life every day and be able to connect with those around you. Diversity is important because wide range of interests lets people unite despite their differences. Without a liberal arts degree, it becomes almost impossible to relate to those around you with a complete understanding. To connect is to bond with the world through the knowledge you have gained and experiences that have widened your perspective on life.






Out of all the extracurricular, community service or employment activities I’ve participated in, The Humanities Club has been the most meaningful to me due to the greatest effect it has made in my life. By being part of this club, I’ve been able to devote my time to helping my peers, the community, and many people around the world. I’ve realized the hardships people face, which have made me thankful for all that I have. Therefore, I’ve volunteered for non-profiting organizations such as Hunger Task Force, American Red Cross, and AmeriCares to help those suffering from poverty, hunger, and sickness. Members of this club have set aside their differences in order to help men, women, and children that are in need of our help. Due to poverty, thousands of people starve to death because food isn‘t provided for them. I’ve coordinated many food-drives in school through the Hunger Task Force to defeat world hunger. Through the American Red Cross, I’ve coordinated Shoe Box Christmas, where boxes are filled with toys and necessary school items for children in poverty. AmeriCares is also a non-profiting organization that I’m still volunteering for by sending in healthy kid kits to various countries. These kits include supplies encouraging better hygiene for children suffering through trauma. All of these volunteering services have led me to care even more about the worldly issues that surround us. One of my goals has become to end poverty and spread awareness in issues dealing with poverty, world hunger, and sickness.

Essay Prep for Philo

Give a summary statement of the doctrine of ethical rationalism and explain how Plato qualifies as an ethical rationalist.


Ethical rationalism: morality as a body of knowledge

Rationalism on moral judgment:
-Moral judgments are factual claims about a reality independent of us
-They are knowable by human reason


Plato on moral judgment
- Morality is based on the form of the good
- What is good for us depends on the form of the good, which gives everything its special nature and value
- Correct moral judgments are based on knowledge of the realm of forms.

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In the Republic at 580d-583a and 583b-588a, Socrates gives two related arguments for his view that the moral life, understood as a life of psychic harmony (where each part of the soul performs its function as dictated by the rational part), is the happiest life. Summarize the case Socrates makes in these two arguments.


2nd answer (580-583)
-Each part of the soul has its distinct kind of pleasure
-Each type of person thinks his characteristic pleasure is the greatest
-Only the the philosophical person has the experience and the judgment to compare
-Hence, the person in psychic harmony is the happiest

Objection
The philosophical person may have had experience of other desires, but not of other lives as a whole. Why then is his viewpoint not biased?


Reply
-Must use reason to make an unbiased judgment
-Appetitive and spirited personalities subordinate reason to felt intensity of desire
-Only in philosophical personalities is reason making a genuine comparative judgment


Problem
This reply suggests that experiences can seem pleasurable but not really be so. Does this idea make sense? Plato thinks so, and this is why he provides a third reply.

3rd answer (583-588)
-Pleasures of appetitive and spirited personalities enter the soul through the body
-These have a sensory aspect that needs to be corrected by reason.
-Uncorrected, these pleasures are only pale images of true pleasures.
-These personalities are thus like the cave prisoners

Example
-The same state of the body can feel good or bad depending on what precedes it.
-But the very same state cannot both be pleasure and pain
-There must be an appearance-reality distinction for pleasures
-Reason is needed to tell the difference

_____________________

Philo Notes

Ideal spectator approach
Lecture 2
“The hypothesis which we embrace is plain. It maintains that morality is determined by sentiment. It defines virtue to be whatever mental action or quality gives to a spectator the pleasing sentiment of approbation; and vice the contrary.” --Hume, Appendix I

Topics today:
Hume’s view of moral judgment
His critique of the rationalist position

Sec. 5: Why utility pleases
- Why do we morally admire those qualities that are socially useful?
- Can’t just be a result of education. There must be a basis in human nature.
- 2 possibilities: self-regard or humanitarian concern

Self-regard or concern for others?
- Moral sentiment can oppose our self-interest
- Can concern matters that don’t affect our self-interest
- far away in space or time
- fictional
- Concern for self and moral concern feel different
- Moral sentiment cannot be a form of self-regard
- Must be a concern for others

Universal benevolence
- Rooted in an innate human capacity for sympathy
- Sympathy can take the form of a sentiment of benevolence toward all, a humanitarian concern.
- This concern is what drives our moral judgments

Objection
- Sympathy leads to more concern for those close to us
- Our moral judgments do not vary in this way

Reply
- Unequal concern arises from a biased point of view
- An impartial consideration of the situation channels benevolence equally toward all
- Correct moral judgments express the attitudes of an impartial, sympathetic observer

Role of reason in morality
-Reason ascertains facts about what promotes or diminishes pleasure and happiness
-So reason plays a role
-But reason does not make the moral judgment
-Moral judgment expresses a sentiment evoked by consideration of the facts revealed by reason.

1st argument against rationalism
-Reason: inductive or demonstrative
-Inductive: infers facts from observation
-Demonstrative: works with abstract mathematical and logical relations.
-Moral judgments don’t pick out such facts or relations
-Hence they are not made by reason

Example: the “crime” of ingratitude
-Observable fact: ill will or indifference in the mind of the ungrateful person
-This is not a moral fact because it is not always wrong
-Abstract relation: contrariety of attitude
-Again, this is not always wrong

2nd argument
-Reason operates to infer NEW facts and relations
-A moral judgment must be based on all the facts of a situation
-Hence moral judgments are not made by reason

3rd argument
-Moral judgments are like judgments of beauty
-Beauty is not a quality or feature we discover in the object
-Rather, a judgment of beauty is an expression of a favorable sentiment toward the object
-Moral judgments express a similar kind of sentiment

4th argument
-Non-human objects can manifest all the relations that obtain in a moral situation.
-But we don’t apply morality to the non-human world
-Hence morality is not a matter of relations.

5th argument
-Reason alone is never a motive to action
-Moral judgments can move us to action
-Hence reason by itself cannot give us morality